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ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


BY 

LILLIAN  G.   KIMBALL 

FORMERLY  HEAD   OF   ENGLISH   DEPARTMENT,   STATE   NORMAL 

SCHOOL,   OSHKOSH,   WISCONSIN 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  SENTENCE  " 

"ELEMENTARY   ENGLISH,   BOOK   ONE,"   AND 

"  ELEMENTARY  ENGLISH,   BOOK  TWO  " 


NEW  YORK:- CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK   COMPANY 


'rrD    ^JUhloyKiX       30  f-O  4  / 


Copyright,  1912,  by 
AJVIERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 


KIMBALL'S  ENG.    6BAMMAK. 
K-9     13 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  set  forth  in  a  simple  and 
practical  manner  the  principles  of  modern  English  Grammar. 
The  aim  has  been  not  only  to  give  the  pupils  an.  insight  into 
the  structure  of  the  English  sentence,  but  also  to  provide  them 
with  exercises  helpful  to  the  formation  of  good  habits  of 
speech. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  among  teachers  of 
grammar  that  a  mere  understanding  of  the  rules  of  syntax 
does  not  insure  the  avoidance  of  errors  and  the  use  of  correct 
forms.  The  use  of  language  by  young  persons  is  instinctive 
and  spontaneous  rather  than  reflective,  hence  the  most  effective 
way  for  them  to  secure  correctness  of  speech  is  through  imita- 
tion and  practice.  Recognizing  this  fundamental  fact  in  lan- 
guage teaching,  the  author  has  provided  many  exercises  both 
for  the  learning  of  correct  forms  and  for  practice  in  their  use. 
These  the  teacher  is  expected  to  supplement  by  constant  criti- 
cism, example,  and  stimulus. 

After  the  pupil  has  been  led  to  appreciate  and  strive  for 
correctness  of  speech,  he  naturally  wishes  to  understand  why 
a  certain  form  is  correct  or  incorrect,  to  have  a  test  for  his 
own  speech  and  a  standard  by  which  to  judge  the  speech  of 
others.  Only  by  such  an  understanding  does  he  gain  a  mastery 
of  the  form  of  a  language  so  that  he  can  use  it  with  ease, 
freedom,  and  certainty.  To  promote  such  a  mastery  of  Eng- 
lish, the  author  has  made  each  construction  perfectly  clear, 
and  has  led  the  pupil  through  accurate  reasoning  to  conclusions 
which  are  strengthened  and  established  by  their  application 
to  many  illustrative  sentences  chosen  from,  standard  literature. 

3 

577820 


4  PREFACE 

The  selection  and  the  arrangement  of  subject  matter  have 
been  carefully  considered  in  the  light  of  experience  in  the 
classroom.  The  arrangement  is  at  the  same  time  pedagogical 
and  logical.  Each  point  is  taken  up  where  it  is  called  for  by 
the  preceding  lesson  and  where  it  will  be  of  greatest  use  in 
making  clear  what  follows.  Technical  points  that  have  little 
or  no  practical  value  have  been  omitted,  but  whatever  is  of 
benefit  in  helping  the  pupil  to  use  or  to  interpret  the  English 
language  has  been  included. 

Thanks  are  due  to  many  teachers  for  helpful  criticisms  of 
the  manuscript  of  this  book. 


CONTENTS 


LE880N  PAGE 

>^^I.  Declarative  Sentences.     Subject  and  Predicate     •        .  9 

11.  Simple  Subject.     Nouns 11 

III.  Classification  of  Nouns 13 

IV.  Verbs 15 

V.  Pronouns         .         .         . 18 

\^  VI.  Compound  Subject  and  Compound  Predicate        .        .  19 

VII.  Transposed  Subject  and  Predicate          ....  22 

*"  VIII.  Interrogative  Sentences . 23 

IX.  Adjectives 25 

X.  Adverbs 28 

XI.  Phrases.     Analysis  of  Sentences    .        .        .        .        *  31 

XII.  Prepositions 34 

XIII.  Term  of  Address.     Exclamatory  Noun ....  39 

U  XIV.  Imperative  Sentences 41 

XV.  Interjections 43 

^^XVI.  Exclamatory  Sentences 44 

XVII.  Conjunctions 46 

XVIII.  Clauses.     Simple  Sentences    .        .        .        .        •        .48 

XIX.  Compound  Sentences 50 

XX.  Dependent  Clauses.     Complex  Sentences       ...  52 

XXI.  Review :  Classification  of  Sentences       .        ...  55 

XXII.  Review :  Parts  of  Speech 57 

XXIII.  Transitive  Verbs.     Object  of  Verb        ....  60 

XXIV.  Intransitive  Verbs  asserting  Action       .        .        •        .64 

6 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 

XXV. 


XXVL 

XXVIL 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIIL 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXVIL 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XLII. 

XLIII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 

XL  VII. 

XLVIIL 

XLIX. 

L. 

LI. 

LII. 

LIIL 

LIV. 


PAGB 

Intransitive   Verbs   asserting  Being.      Nouns    as 

Subjective  Complements 66 

Adjectives  as  Subjective  Complements    •        .        .  69 

Review  of  Verbs 72 

Nouns:  Number 74 

Nouns:  Gender        .       • 77 

Possessive  Nouns 80 

Nouns:  Case 83 

Nouns :  The  Appositive 85 

Appositive  Adjectives 88 

Indirect  Object 89 

Adverbial  Noun  Phrases  .        •        •        •        •        .91 

Adverbial  Noun  Phrases 92 

Objective  Complement 94 

Parsing  of  Nouns •        ,96 

Personal  Pronouns 98 

Uses  of  Personal  Pronouns 100 

Uses  of  Possessive  Personal  Pronouns     .        .        .  103 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns          ....  106 

Interrogative  Pronouns 108 

Descriptive  Adjectives 110 

Limiting  Adjectives 113 

Comparison  of  Adjectives        •        .        .        .        .116 

Review  of  Adjectives 120 

Adjective  Pronouns .  121 

Verbs:  Tense 123 

The  Indicative  Mode 127 

The  Interrogative  Form  of  the  Indicative  Mode     .  129 

The  Subjunctive  Mode 131 

The  Imperative  Mode 134 

Principal  Parts  of  Verbs.    Regular  and  Irregular 

Verbs         .        . 135 


CONTENTS 


IJE860K  PAGB 

LV.  Voice         .        .        ...        .        .        .        .        .140 

LVI.     The  Passive  Voice 144 

LVII.     The  Progressive  Conjugation 148 

LVIII.     The  Emphatic  Conjugation 149 

LIX.     Parsing  of  Verbs 150 

LX.  The  Auxiliary  Verbs  Shall  and  Will        .        .        .151 

LXL  Defective  Verbs.     Verb  Phrases       .        .        .        .154 

LXII.  Direct  and  Indirect  Discourse  .        .        .        .        .162 

LXIII.  Agreement  of  Verb  and  Subject.     Collective  Nouns    165 

LXIV.     Review  of  Verbs .     168 

LXV.  Classification  of  Adverbs.     Simple  Adverbs    .        .     169 

LXVL  Conjunctive  Adverbs        .        .        .        .        .        .    171 

LXVII.  Summary  of  Adverbs        .        .        .        .      '  .        .173 

LXVIII.     Coordinate  Conjunctions 174 

LXIX.     Subordinate  Conjunctions 176 

LXX.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Time,  Place,  and  Manner      .     180 

LXXI.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Cause,  Purpose,  and  Result    .     183 

LXXII.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Condition  and  Concession      .     186 

LXXIII.  Adverbial  Clauses  of  Comparison     ....    188 

LXXIV.     Analysis  of  Sentences 191 

LXXV.    Adjective  Clauses 193 

LXXVI.     Relative  Pronouns 196 

LXXVIL    Noun  Clauses 200 

LXXVIII.  Introductory  Words  of  Noun  Clauses       .        .        .203 

LXXIX.     Review  of  Clauses 206 

LXXX.     Review  of  Pronouns 207 

LXXXL     Infinitives 209 

LXXXII.  Infinitives  as  Subjects  or  Complements   .        .        .    212 

liXXXIII.  Infinitives  as  Modifiers  of  Nouns    .         •        .        .    215 

LXXXIV.  Infinitives    as    Parts    of  "Double    Objects."     As 

Modifiers  of  Verbs 216 

LXXXV.    Other  Uses  of  Infinitives 220 


8  CONTENTS 

LESSON  PAGE 

LXXXVI.     Summary  of  Infinitives 224 

LXXXVII.    Analysis    of    Sentences    containing    Infinitive 

Phrases 225 

LXXXVIIL     Participles 228 

LXXXIX.     Participles  modifying  Nouns         .        •        .        .  231 

XC.     Participial  Phrases  in  the  Predicate      .        .        .  234 

XCI.     Absolute  Participial  Phrases          .        •        .        .  237 

XCII.    Agreement  of  Participles.    Other  Words  in  4ng  .  239 

XCIII.    Summary  of  Participles         •        •        •        •        •  243 

XCIV.    Analysis  of  Sentences 244 

XCV.    Anticipative  Subject 247 

XCVI.    Elliptical  Sentences       .        .        •        .        .        .249 
XCVII.    Review  of  Analysis        •       .       •        •        •        .252 

General  Review •••••  257 

Index •       •       •       •  265 


I.     DECLARATIVE    SENTENCES.     SUBJECT 
AND    PREDICATE 

1.  The  purpose  of  English  Grammar  is  to  set  forth  the 
laws  and  customs  governing  the  use  of  the  English  language. 
We  study  grammar  in  order  that  we  may  express  our  thoughts 
correctly. 

A  group  of  words,  sometimes  few,  sometimes  many,  that 
completely  expresses  a  thought  is  called  a  sentence.  In 
speech  one  sentence  is  set  off  from  another  by  a  slight  pause. 
On  the  written  or  printed  page  sentences  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  slight  space,  while  the  first  word  of  every 
sentence  begins  with  a  capital  letter,  and  the  last  word  is 
followed  by  some  sort  of  terminal  mark. 

Most  sentences  are  made  to  state,  or  declare,  something, 
and  hence  are  called  declarative  sentences.  The  following 
are  declarative  sentences  :  — 

Molly  danced  up  and  down  with  delight. 

My  grandfather's  desk  had  the  best  light  in  the  room. 

2.  Declarative  sentences  consist  of  two  distinct  parts. 
One  part  names  the  person,  place,  or  thing  which  the  sen- 
tence tells  something  about.  This  part  is  called  the  subject 
The  other  part  is  the  telling  part.     It  is  called  the  predicate. 

In  the  first  example  Molly  is  the  subject,  because  it  names 
the  person  about  whom  something  is  told.  Danced  up  and 
down  with  delight  is  the  predicate,  because  it  tells  something 
about  Molly. 

What  is  the  subject  in  the  second  example ?  the  predicate  ? 
How  do  you  know?  What  terminal  mark  follows  a  declara- 
tive sentence? 

9 


10.    -      ,. ;  ^c/BECLARATIVE  SENTENCES 

Summary.  —  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  that  com- 
pletely expresses  a  thought. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  states,  or  declares,  some- 
thing. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  always  followed  by  a  period. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  which  names  that 
about  which  something  is  said. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  which  says  something 
about  the  subject. 

Exercise  1.  —  Tell  why  each  of  the  following  sentences  is 
declarative.  Select  the  subject,  and  tell  why  it  is  the  subject. 
Select  the  predicate,  and  tell  why  it  is  the  predicate.  Tell  all 
this  in  good  language.  Write  it  about  one  of  the  sentences, 
and  be  sure  to  underline  the  words  that  should  be  printed 
in  italics.  (See  §  2.)  Remember  that  all  the  words  in  the 
sentence  belong  either  in  the  subject  or  in  the  predicate. 

1.  The  village  street  was  as  quiet  as  the  fields. 

2.  The  great  crashes  of  deep  bass  notes  sent  little  thrills  down  . 
our  backs. 

3.  The  cat  could  not  find  anything  to  eat  except  a  thio,  dried-up 
old  mole. 

4.  Little  gray-eyed  Caroline  went  to  live  with  her  Aunt  Fogg. 

5.  The  traveler,  being  quite  faint  for  lack  of  food,  helped  himself 
to  the  leg  of  a  roast  chicken. 

6.  Four  is  the  right  number  for  a  pie. 

7.  A  young  girl  of  wonderful  beauty  lay  asleep  on  the  bed. 

8.  Mary  shut  the  parlor  door  with  a  great  slam. 

9.  Beauty,  full  of  surprise  but  very  happy,  permitted  the  prince 
to  lead  her  to  his  palace. 

10.  The  magic  song  still  rose  from  the  vines  outside  the  chamber 
window. 

11.  We  cats  are  confined  entirely  to  the  society  of  each  other. 

12.  The  glassy  water  was  sparkling  with  stars. 

13.  Locusts  devoured  the  green  things  of  the  valley. 

14.  Not  a  living  soul  was  to  be  seen. 

15.  My  little  half-starved  cat  grew  white  and  plump  and  pretty. 


SIMPLE  SUBJECT.    NOUNS,  11 

Exercise  2.  —  Find   five  interesting  declarative  sentences 
in  a  story  book.     Write  them  with  the  subject  under Hned. 

Exercise  3.  —  Write  a  fitting  predicate  for  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects: — - 

1.  A  boy  with  a  fish  pole  6.  Not  a  girl  in  the  class 

2.  Abraham  Lincoln  7.  The  battered  old  musket 

3.  My  last  dime  8.  The  haymakers 

4.  The  man  on  the  ice  wagon  9.  The  miner's  cabin 

5.  Our  old  white  rooster  10.  Moving  picture  shows 


II.     SIMPLE    SUBJECT.     NOUNS 

3.  It  is  evident  from  the  sentences  in  Exercise  1,  p.  10,  that 
the  subject  of  a  sentence  may  consist  of  one  word  or  of  a 
group  of  words.  In  the  sentence,  "  Peter  was  sitting  by 
himself,"  the  subject  is  only  the  one  word  Peter,  In  the 
sentence,  ^^  A  lovely  old  lady  with  white  hair  and  a  gentle, 
noble  face  came  to  the  door,"  the  subject  is  a  group  of  twelve 
words.     What  are  they? 

When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  group  of  words,  there  is 
always  a  base  word  in  the  group,  which,  more  than  any  qther 
word,  names  or  designates  the  person,  place,  or  thing  about 
which  something  is  said.  This  word  is  called  the  simple 
subject. 

What  is  the  simple  subject  in  the  sentence  that  tells  who 
came  to  the  door?  What  are  the  simple  Subjects  in  sen- 
tences 1,  2,  5,  7,  12,  14,  and  15  in  Exercise  1,  p.  10? 

4.  Every  word  in  a  sentence  is  used  for  a  particular  pur- 
pose. Because  words  are  used  for  different  purposes  they 
have  been  divided  into  classes  called  parts  of  speech. 

In  the  sentences  just  studied  the  words  Peter  and  lady  are 
used  to  name  certain  persons.  Name  words  are  called 
nouns.     A  noun  is  a  part  of  speech. 


12  SIMPLE  SUBJECT.    NOUNS 

5.  Not  every  noun  is  the  name  of  a  person.  Many  are 
names  of  places ;  as,  Oshkosh,  pasture^  corner.  Many  more 
are  names  of  things  of  all  sorts ;  as,  peachy  violet,  bee,  thimble, 
automobile. 

In  the  sentence  about  the  lovely  old  lady,  find  three  nouns 
that  are  names  of  things. 

Any  noun  may  be  used  as  the  simple  subject  of  a  sentence. 
Write  sentences  in  which  the  nouns  hair,  face,  and  door  are 
so  used. 

Summary.  —  The  simple  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  base 
word,  or  most  important  word,  of  the  subject. 

Parts  of  speech  are  the  classes  into  which  words  are  divided 
according  to  their  use. 

A  noun  is  a  name  word. 

A  noun  may  be  used  as  the  simple  subject  of  a  sentence. 

Exercise.  —  Write  a  list  of  all  the  nouns  you  can  find  in 
the  following  paragraphs.  Tell  what  each  noun  is  the  name 
of.  Point  out  five  nouns  that  are  simple  subjects.  What 
are  their  predicates  ? 

1.  At  last  Purun  Dass  went  to  England  on  a  visit,  and  had  to  pay 
enormous  sums  to  the  priests  when  he  came  back  to  India ;  for  even 
so  high-caste  a  Brahmin  as  he  lost  caste  by  crossing  the  black  sea. 
In  London  he  met  and  talked  with  every  one  worth  knowing  —  men 
whose  names  go  all  over  the  world  —  and  saw  a  great  deal  more 
than  he  said.  He  was  given  honorary  degrees  by  learned  univer- 
sities, and  he  made  speeches  and  talked  of  Hindu  social  reform  to 
English  ladies  in,  evening  dress,  till  all  London  cried,  ''This  is  the 
most  fascinating  man  we  have  ever  met  at  dinner  since  cloths  were 
first  laid." 

2.  Her  godmother  laughed,  and  touched  Cinderella  also  with  the 
wand ;  at  which  her  wretched,  threadbare  jacket  became  stiff  with 
gold,  and  sparkling  with  jewels  ;  her  woolen  petticoat  lengthened 
into  a  gown  of  sweeping  satin,  from  underneath  which  peeped  out  her 
little  feet,  no  longer  bare,  but  covered  with  silk  stockings  and  the 
prettiest  glass  slippers  in  the  world.     "Now,  Cinderella,  depart ; 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  NOUNS  13 

but  remember,  if  you  stay  one  instant  after  midnight,  your  carriage 
will  become  a  pumpkin,  your  coachman  a  rat,  your  horses  mice,  and 
your  footmen  lizards  ;  while  you  yourself  will  be  the  little  cinder 
wench  you  were  an  hour  ago." 


III.     CLASSIFICATION    OF    NOUNS 

6.  There  are  certain  beings  in  the  world  that  are  called 
.men,  and  certain  other  beings  that  are  called  horses,  cer- 
tain things  that  are  called  cities,  and  certain  other  things 
that  are  called  rivers,  hence  the  words  man,  horse,  city, 
and  river  are  names,  or  nouns.  Since  these  nouns  belong  in 
common  to  a  great  many  individuals,  we  call  them  common 
nouns. 

7.  On  the  other  hand,  every  man,  every  horse,  every  city, 
and  every  river  is  likely  to  have  a  special  name  that  distin- 
guishes that  particular  man  or  horse  or  city  or  river  from  all 
others.  Ccesar,  Gypsy,  Denver,  and  Penobscot  are  such 
names.  Since  these  names  belong  to  only  one  thing  instead 
of  to  a  class  of  things,  we  call  them  proper  nouns. 

8.  A  common  noun  is  a  name  that  belongs  to  a  person, 
a  place,  or  a  thing  because  of  its  nature  or  qualities.  A 
boat  is  entitled  to  the  name  boat  because  it  has  the  char- 
acteristics of  boats.  A  proper  noun  is  a  name  conferred  or 
given  by  some  person,  as  when  a  certain  boat  was  named  by 
its  owners  Westernland. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  same  name  is  conferred 
upon  several  objects.  There  is  more  than  one  city  named 
Madison,  more  than  one  dog  named  Shep.  Still  these  names 
are  proper  names,  because  they  are  names  conferred  upon 
a  special  city  and  a  special  dog  to  distinguish  them  from 
other  cities  and  other  dogs. 

A  proper  noun  always  begins  with  a  capital  letter. 


14  CLASSIFICATION   OF  NOUNS 

9.  When  a  word  denoting  relationship,  Uke  father,  mother y 
uncle,  is  used  as  the  name  of  a  particular  person,  it  is  a  proper 
noun  and  should  therefore  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as, 
'^  Did  Father  say  that  Grandma  and  Auntie  are  coming?" 

10.  A  title  like  Colonel,  Judge,  Duke,  is  a  proper  noun  when 
it  is  used  to  denote  a  special  person;  as,  ^'Thousaads  had 
gathered  to  welcome  the  Colonel  home/'  When  such  a 
word  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  persons,  it  is  a  common  noun ; 
as,  "A  new  uniform  was  designed  for  the  colonels." 

When  a  title  is  followed  by  another  name,  as.  Colonel 
Bouck,  Judge  Gary,  the  two  words  are  considered  as  one 
proper  noun.  In  the  same  way,  any  group  of  two  or  more 
words  forming  one  special  name  may  be  considered  as  one 
proper  noun ;  as,  Liberty  Bell,  Bay  of  Biscay,  Mountains  of 
the  Moon.  In  such  groups  of  words,  each  important  word 
begins  with  a  capital  letter. 

Note.  — Names  of  qualities,  conditions,  or  actions  are  often  called 
abstract  nouns  ;  as,  honesty^  power^  boyhood,  the  passing  of  the  train, 
sound  thinking,  suspense. 

Summary.  —  A  common  noun  is  a  noun  that  belongs  in 
common  to  each  one  of  a  class  of  persons,  places,  or  things. 

A  proper  noun  is  a  name  that  has  been  conferred  upon  a 
particular  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Every  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Exercise.  — Select  all  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  tell  whether  they  are  common  or  proper  nouns.  Give 
your  reason  in  each  case.     Account  for  the  capitalization. 

1.  The  Bermudas  are  a  cluster  of  small  islands,  lying  as  far 
south  as  Charleston,  as  far  east  as  Nova  Scotia. 

2.  Hotel  Hamilton  is  a  large,  commodious  building  with  many 
pillars  and  broad  verandas. 

3.  The  Tenedos  is  lying  off  Grassy  Bay,  making  herself  fine 
to  receive  the  Princess  Louise,  and  her  jolly  tars  are  in  high 
spirits. 


VERBS  15 

4.  On  the  Sunday  of  the  christening,  Mrs.  Howe  and  her  chil- 
dren watched  the  merrymaking  in  Poverty  Lane  from  a  second 
story  window. 

5.  Where  was  Prospero's  cell  ?  Where  slept  the  fair  Miranda  ? 
Upon  what  bank  sat  Ferdinand  when  Ariel  sang  ? 

6.  The  Duluth  High  School  is  a  fine  structure  built  of  red 
sandstone. 

7.  The  Deliverance  was  a  ship  of  eighty  tons. 

8.  Old  Lobo,  or  the  King,  as  the  Mexicans  called  him,  was  the 
gigantic  leader  of  a  remarkable  pack  of  gray  wolves,  that  had  rav- 
aged the  Currumpaw  Valley  for  a  number  of  years. 

9.  About  this  time  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  the  Spectator. 

10.  Wynken,  Blynken,  and  Nod  one  night 
Sailed  off  in  a  wooden  shoe. 

11.  Let  us  all  go  to  the  station  Monday  to  meet  Uncle. 

12.  The  cows  were  coming  one  by  one ; 
Brindle,  Ebony,  Speckle,  and  Bess, 
Shaking  their  horns  in  the  evening  wind. 

13.  Gunpowder  had  been  a  favorite  steed  of  his  master's,  the 
choleric  Van  Ripper,  who  was  a  furious  rider. 

14.  Upstream,  at  the  bend  of  the  sluggish  pool  round  the  Peace 
Rock,  stood  Hathi,  the  wild  elephant,  with  his  sons,  gaunt  and  gray 
in  the  moonlight. 

15.  In  his  eighth  year  Charles  Lamb  entered  Christ's  Hospital, 
a  famous  school  in  London. 

It  is  evident  from  this  exercise  that  several  different  sorts 
of  things,  as  hotels,  streets,  books,  and  ships,  may  have 
special  names  conferred  upon  them.  Think  of  ten  other 
things  that  may  have  special  names,  and  write  two  names 
for  each  one. 

IV.     VERBS 

11.  Just  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence  may  consist  of  only 
one  word,  so  may  the  predicate.  Hence  it  is  that  a  declara- 
tive sentence  may  contain  only  two  words,  one  being  the  sub- 
ject and  the  other  the  predicate ;  as  in  the  sentence,  ^'  Water 
runs."  Here  the  noun  water  names  the  thing  about  which  some- 
thing is  told,  and  the  word  runs  tells  something  about  water. 


16  VERBS 

12.  In  every  predicate,  no  matter  how  long  it  is,  there  is 
always  one  word,  or  a  little  group  of  words,  which  does  more 
of  the  telling  than  all  the  rest  of  the  predicate.  In  fact,  with- 
out this  word  or  group  of  words,  there  would  be  no  statement 
at  all.  In  the  sentence,  ^^  A  red  sash  with  fringes  of  gold 
wraps  his  waist  several  times,''  the  predicate  consists  of  five 
words,  but  the  one  word  that  counts  for  most  in  making  the 
statement  is  the  word  wraps.  This  word  is  called  a  verb. 
A  verb  is  a  part  of  speech. 

A  verb,  being  the  essential  part  of  a  predicate,  is  called 
the  simple  predicate. 

13.  Sometimes  a  verb  colisists  of  two,  or  three,  or  even 
four  words.  What  is  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences? — 

All  the  cherries  had  been  picked  from  the  trees  near  the  house. 
The  watchman  on  the  roof  was  Hstening  for  the  first  sounds  of 
day. 

A  tall,  dark  figure  might  have  been  seen  at  the  end  of  the  avenue. 

14.  When  the  verb  in  a  given  sentence  has  been  found,  the 
subject  may  be  discovered  by  asking  the  question  formed  by 
placing  the  word  who  or  what  before  the  verb.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  sentence,  "  The  parrot's  story,  with  the  various 
pauses  and  interruptions,  occupied  a  good  deal  of  time," 
occupied  is  the  verb  because  it  is  the  telling  word.  Ask- 
ing the  question  what  occupied?  we  get  the  answer,  the 
parroVs  story,  with  the  various  pauses  and  interruptions, 
hence  this  group  of  words  is  the  subject.  What  is  the  simple 
subject  ? 

15.  In  grammar  we  often  use  the  word  assertion  instead  of 
statement,  and  the  word  assert  instead  of  make  a  statement. 

Summary.  —  A  verb  is  an  asserting  word. 
A  verb  may  consist  of  one  word,  two,  three,  or  four  words^ 
but  never  of  more  than  four  words. 


VERBS  17 

A  verb  is  the  necessary  part  of  every  predicate,  hence  it  is 
called  the  simple  predicate. 

To  find  the  subject  of  a  verb,  ask  the  question  made  by 
using  the  word  who  or  what  before  the  verb. 

Exercise.  —  Divide  the  following  sentences  into  subject 
and  predicate.  Select  the  predicate  verb,  and  tell  why  it  is  a 
verb.  Find  the  simple  subject  of  each  sentence.  Tell  what 
part  of  speech  it  is,  and  why. 

1.  The  procession  moved  from  the  palace  to  the  church  with 
great  pomp. 

2.  The  blue  eyes  of  the  Greek  sparkled. 

3.  The  magnificent  buildings  of  the  hospital  stand  on  level 
land  near  the  river. 

4.  The  gentle  young  bride  was  frightened  by  the  silent,  mys- 
terious ways  of  the  old  Indian. 

5.  The  poorest  twig  on  the  elm  tree 
Was  ridged  inch  deep  with  pearl. 

6.  The  great  hall  of  the  palace  was  illuminated  with  a  thousand 
lamps. 

7.  His  anvil  makes  no  music  on  Sunday. 

8.  The  raccoon's  story  was  received  with  general  approbation. 

9.  This  old  hunter  must  have  told  many  tales. 

10.  Our  conference  under  the  peepul  tree  had  been  growing 
noisier  and  noisier. 

11.  One  great  name  can  make  a  country  great. 

12.  The  camels  slept. 

13.  No  European  could  have  made  five  miles  a  day  over  the 
ice  rubbish  and  the  sharp-edged  drifts. 

14.  The  cows  should  have  been  milked  before  sundown. 

15.  The  deep  waters  of  the  bay- 
Stir  with  the  breath  of  hurrying  day. 

16.  Wully  could  not  have  imagined  any  greater  being  than  his 
master. 

17.  Everything  out  of  doors  was  sheathed  in  silver  mail. 

18.  The  duck  mother  v/ould  have  liked  the  eel's  head  herself. 

In  sentence  18  is  herself  in  the  subject  or  in  the  predicate? 
Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  2 


18  PRONOUNS 

V.     PRONOUNS 

16.  When  a  person  makes  an  assertion  about  himself  he 
uses  for  the  subject  of  his  sentence,  not  his  name,  but  the 
word  I  instead.  Will  Dunlap  does  not  say,  ^'  Will  Dunlap 
saw  a  flock  of  wild  geese  this  morning,  and  heard  them  too/^ 
He  says,  ^^  I  saw  a  flock  of  wild  geese  this  morning,  and  heard 
them  too.''  The  word  /,  which  is  used  instead  of  a  name,  or 
noun,  is  called  a  pronoun.     A  pronoun  is  a  part  of  speech. 

What  pronoun  besides  /  do  you  find  in  the  sentence 
quoted  ?     For  what  noun  is  it  used  ? 

17.  Pronouns  are  used  a  good  deal,  especially  in  conver- 
sation, for  often  instead  of  using  the  name  of  the  person  we 
are  speaking  to,  we  use  the  pronoun  you ;  and  in  speaking  of 
persons,  we  use,  provided  their  names  are  already  known  to 
our  listeners,  the  pronouns  he,  she,  or  they. 

Summary.  —  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 
A  pronoun  can  be  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 
By  the  use  of  pronouns  we  avoid  the  repetition  of  nouns 
and  the  use  of  clumsy  expressions. 

Exercise.  —  In  the  following  conversation  select  all  the 
pronouns.  Rewrite  a  portion  of  the  conversation,  using  the 
nouns  that  the  pronouns  stand  for.  In  changing  pronouns 
to  nouns  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  a  change  in  the 
verb  also.  After  using  nouns  for  pronouns,  tell  what  you 
think  about  the  usefulness  of  pronouns. 

"What  do  you  think,  Tirzah?     I  am  going  away." 

Tirzah  dropped  her  hands  with  amazement. 

' '  Going  away !     When  ?     Where  ?     For  what  ? ' ' 

Judah  laughed,  then  said,  **  Three  questions,  all  in  a  breath.  What 
a  body  you  are ! "  Next  instant  he  became  serious.  "You  know  the 
law  requires  me  to  follow  some  occupation.  Our  good  father  set  me 
an  example.  Even  you  would  despise  me  if  I  spent  in  idleness  the 
results  of  his  industry  and  knowledge.    I  am  going  to  Rome.'* 


COMPOUND  SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE  19 

*'0h,  I  will  go  with  you." 

"You  must  stay  with  Mother.  If  both  of  us  leave  her,  she  will 
die." 

The  brightness  faded  from  her  face. 

"Ah,  yes,  yes!  But  —  must  you  go?  Here  in  Jerusalem  you 
can  learn  all  that  is  needed  to  be  a  merchant  —  if  that  is  what  you 
are  thinking  of." 

"But  that  is  not  what  I  am  thinking  of.  The  law  does  not  re- 
quire the  son  to  be  what  the  father  was." 

"What  else  can  you  be?" 

"A  soldier,"  he  replied,  with  a  certain  pride  of  voice. 

Tears  came  into  her  eyes. 

"You  will  be  killed." 

"If  God's  will,  be  it  so.  But,  Tirzah,  the  soldiers  are  not  all 
killed." 

She  threw  her  arms  around  his  neck,  as  if  to  hold  him  back. 

"We  are  so  happy  !     Stay  at  home,  my  brother. " 

"Home  cannot  always  be  what  it  is.  You  yourself  will  be  going 
away  before  long." 

"Never!" 

He  smiled  at  her  earnestness. 

"A  prince  will  come  soon  and  claim  my  Tirzah,  and  ride  away 
with  her,  to  be  the  light  of  another  house." 

She  answered  with  sobs. 

"War  is  a  trade,"  he  continued,  more  soberly.  "To  learn  it  thor- 
oughly, one  must  go  to  school,  and  there  is  no  school  like  a  Roman 
camp."  —Lew  Wallace. 

VI.     COMPOUND    SUBJECT   AND    COMPOUND 
PREDICATE 

18.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  person  performs  several 
actions  at  the  same  time,  and  that  all  of  them  are  worth 
telling.  In  such  a  case  we  do  not  make  several  separate 
sentences,  but  one  sentence  with  several  predicates ;  as, 
'^  I  looked  at  my  plate  and  winked  back  the  tears.''  Here 
we  have  two  predicate  verbs,  looked  and  winked,  hence  two 
assertions.  In  such  a  sentence  we  say  that  there  is  a  com- 
pound predicate. 


20  COMPOUND   SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE 

19.  The  compound  predicate  is  used  also  when  we  tell  of 
a  number  of  actions  performed  in  succession  by  one  subject; 
as,  '^  Father  Wolf  woke  up  from  his  day's  rest,  scratched  him- 
self, yawned,  and  spread  out  his  paws  one  after  the  other  to 
get  rid  of  the  sleepy  feeling  in  the  tips/'  How  many  predi- 
cates are  there  in  this  sentence?  What  mark  separates 
them  ?  Two  or  more  predicates  in  succession,  having  the 
same  subject,  form  what  is  called  a  series.  (Words  or  groups 
of  words  in  a  series  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
comma  unless  some  joining  word  is  used;  but  when  only  the 
last  two  of  a  series  are  joined  by  some  word,  the  comma  is 
used  before  this  wordp 

20.  We  frequently  wish  to  make  the  same  assertion  about 
several  persons  or  things,  but  we  do  not  make  several  sen- 
tences, repeating  the  predicate  each  time,  for  that  would  be 
tedious.  Instead,  we  make  one  sentence  with  several  sub- 
jects; as,  ^^  The  fresh  fruit  and  milk  and  the  slices  of  cold 
chicken  looked  very  nice.''  This  sentence  has  three  distinct 
subjects.  What  are  they  ?  In  such  a  sentence  we  say  that 
there  is  a  compound  subject.  Why  is  no  comma  used  in  this 
sentence? 

Summary.  —  A  compound  subject  is  one  that  consists  of 
two  or  more  distinct  subjects  united  into  one. 

A  compound  predicate  is  one  that  consists  of  two  or  more 
distinct  predicates  united  into  one. 

Two  parts  of  a  compound  predicate  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  comma  unless  they  are  very  short.  When  there 
are  more  than  two  parts,  and  the  last  two  are  joined  by  some 
such  word  as  and,  a  comma  is  placed  after  each  part,  even 
before   the   joining   word. 

When  a  compound  subject  consists  of  more  than  two  parts, 
a  comma  is  placed  after  each  part,  unless  all  the  parts  are 
joined  by  some  word. 


COMPOUND  SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE  21 

Any  sentence  may  have  a  compound  subject,  or  a  com- 
pound predicate,  or  both. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  why  the  following  sentences  are  declara- 
tive. Tell  whether  each  has  a  compound  subject,  or  a  com- 
pound predicate,  or  both.  Write  each  sentence,  and  draw 
a  vertical  line  between  subject  and  predicate.  Underline 
the  simple  subjects,  and  tell  what  part  of  speech  they  are. 
Underhne  also  the  simple  predicates,  or  predicate  verbs. 
Account  for  the  punctuation. 

1.  The  oars  dipped,  arose,  poised  a  moment,  then  dipped  again, 
with  winglike  action,  and  in  perfect  time. 

2.  The  eyes  and  mouths  of  the  auditors  opened  wide. 

3.  This  poor  child  became  the  scapegoat  of  the  house,  and  was. 
blamed  for  everything. 

4.  The  four  cane-seated  chairs,  the  walnut  table,  the  haircloth 
sofa,  and  the  little  stand  always  spoke  to  me  of  my  childhood  days. 

5.  She  took  the  key  bravely,  but  opened  with  a  trembling  hand 
the  door  of  the  little  room. 

6.  Such  timber  and  such   workmanship   don't   come   together 
often  in  houses  built  nowadays. 

7.  Vast  crowds  of  spectators  lined  the  way,  or  gazed  upon  the 
scene  from  the  housetops. 

8.  The  rider  then  put  his  foot  upon  the  camel's  slender  neck, 
and  stepped  upon  the  sand. 

9.  The  laborers  paused,   sat  up,  wrung  the  water  from  their 
hands,  and  returned  the  salutation. 

10.  The  statue  of  the  Indian  chief  or  the  soldiers'  monument 
in  the  public  square  was  given  to  the  city  by  one  of  the  pioneers. 

11.  Spruce  bachelors  looked  sidelong  at  the  pretty  maidens,  and 
fancied  that  the  Sabbath  sunshine  made  them  prettier  than  on  week 
days. 

12.  Grandmothers,  mothers,  and  aunts  sat  across  the  end  of  the 
hall. 

13.  He  brought  a  carpet  or  square  rug  from  the  litter,  and 
covered  the  floor  of  the  tent  on  the  side  from  the  sun. 

14.  Children  with  bright  faces  tripped  merrily  beside  their 
parents,  or  mimicked  a  graver  gait  in  the  conscious  dignity  of  their 
Sunday  clothes. 


22         TRANSPOSED  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE 

VII.     TRANSPOSED    SUBJECT   AND    PREDICATE 

21.  The  sentences  studied  thus  far  have  been  arranged  so 
that  the  subject  comes  first,  then  the  predicate.  This  is 
called  the  natural  order.  Sometimes,  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis, we  reverse  this  order,  as  in  the  sentence,  *^  In  a 
long  shed  behind  the  church  stood  a  score  of  wagons  and 
chaises  and  carryalls.''     This  is  called  the  transposed  order. 

Sometimes,  for  the  sake  of  a  pleasing  arrangement,  we  put 
only  a  portion  of  the  predicate  before  the  subject,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "  Over  the  highest  peaks  a  vulture  sailed  on  broad 
wings  into  widening  circles."  Here  the  subject  is  very 
short  and  the  predicate  very  long.  The  sentence  balances 
better  with  a  portion  of  the  predicate  coming  first.  This 
also  is  a  case  of  transposed  order. 

Summary.  —  The  natural  order  in  a  sentence  is  first  the 
subject  and  then  the  predicate. 

When  the  words  of  a  sentence  are  not  in  their  natural 
order,  we  say  that  the  sentence  is  transposed. 

Exercise  1.  —  Rearrange  the  following  sentences  so  that 
they  will  be  in  the  natural  order,  then  proceed  as  you  did 
with  the  sentences  in  the  exercise  on  p.  21.  Tell  in  each  case 
whether  you  like  the  natural  or  the  transposed  order  better, 
and  why. 

1.  Around  him,  within  hand's  reach,  lie  osier  boxes  full  of  al- 
monds, grapes,  figs,  and  pomegranates. 

2.  This  challeng3  Fortunatus  accepted. 

3.  On  traveled  the  lady  and  the  bull  through  many  dreadful 
forests  and  lonely  wastes. 

4.  On  that  first  Christmas  morning  in  their  own  home,  the  chil- 
dren found  their  gifts  in  little  piles  on  two  of  the  parlor  chairs. 

5.  Through  the  wide  nostrils  the  camel  drank  the  wind  in  great 
draughts. 

6.  Out  of  the  wide  hall  could  be  heard  in  the  stillness  the  old 
clock. 


INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES  23 

.  7.  At  fnU  speed  a  genuine  Syrian  dromedary  overtakes  the  ordi- 
nary winds. 

8.  Very  hard  Johnny  worked  on  the  house. 

9.  "Come  in,"  said  a  warm,  comfortable  voice  on  the  other  side 
of  the  door. 

10.  Down  will  come  Baby, 
Bough,  cradle,  and  all. 

11.  In  the  garret  meet  together  all  the  broken-down  chairs  of 
the  household,  all  the  spavined  tables,  all  the  seedy  hats,  all  the 
intoxicated-looking  boots,  all  the  split  walking  sticks  that  have 
retired  from  business,  "weary  with  the  march  of  life." 

Account  for  the  commas  in  sentences  10  and  11. 

Exercise  2.  —  Change  the  following  sentences  to  the  trans- 
posed order.     Tell  why  you  like  them  better  so. 

1.  Pussy  walked  along  with  a  slow  and  deliberate  gait  directly 
behind  my  sister  and  me. 

2.  A  red  rose,  a  yellow  rose,  a  woodbine,  and  a  clematis  grew  up 
the  four  walls. 

3.  The  roll  of  the  drum  was  hushed  at  the  old  man's  word  and 
outstretched  arm. 

4.  A  mat  of  long,  uncombed  hair  hangs  over  his  eyes  and  face, 
and  down  his  back. 

5.  The  whole  carpet  came  out  right  on  my  head. 

6.  A  little  rabbit  sat  on  a  bank  one  morning. 

7.  Daylight  and  safety  were  on  the  other  side  of  that  door. 

8.  The  bird  flew  on  and  on,  up  the  steep  mountain. 

9.  A  very  amusing  thing  in  this  story  comes  now. 

10.  The  remains  of  a  great  elephant  have  been  found  in  the  curi- 
ous potholes  near  Cohoes,  New  York. 


VIII.     INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES 

22.  Most  of  the  sentences  in  books  are  declarative  sen- 
tences, written  to  make  statements,  but  in  speech  we  fre- 
quently make  use  of  another  kind  of  sentence,  one  that  asks 
a  question;  as,  "  Do  you  know  how  to  tell  a  sheep's  age?  " 
This  is  called  an  interrogative  sentence. 


24  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES 

23.  The  interrogative  sentence,  "  What  dwarfs  made  that 
armor?  '^  is  in  the  natural  order,  but  this  is  not  the  usual 
order  in  interrogative  sentences.  In  the  sentence,  ^^  Do  you 
know  how  to  tell  a  sheep^s  age?  ''  we  find  first  a  part  of  the 
verb,  then  the  subject,  then  the  other  part  of  the  verb  and 
the  rest  of  the  predicate.  How  would  this  sentence  read  if 
it  were  in  the  natural  order  ?  Would  it  then  be  an  interroga- 
tive sentence? 

Note.  —  Since  an  interrogative  sentence  does  not  make  a  state- 
ment, it  may  seem  strange  to  define  the  verb  in  such  a  sentence  as 
an  asserting  word,  but  in  making  definitions  we  must  think  of  the 
fundamental  nature  and  the  typical  use  of  what  we  are  defining. 
The  primary  office  of  the  verb  is  to  assert,  as  in  declarative  sentences ; 
hence,  we  define  the  verb  as  an  asserting  word,  though  it  may  also 
be  used  in  asking  questions. 


Summary.  —  An  interrogative  sentence   is   one  that 
a  question. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  usually  in  the  transposed 
order,  and  is  always  followed  by  a  question  mark. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  whether  the  following  sentences  are  in 
the  natural  or  the  transposed  order.  Put  into  the  natural 
order  those  which  are  transposed.  Divide  each  sentence 
into  subject  and  predicate.  Select  the  simple  subject  and 
the  predicate  verb,  or  simple  predicate. 

1.  Did  you  ever  hear  of  a  cat's  playing  hide  and  seek  ? 

2.  What  became  of  you  after  the  Princess's  death  ? 

3.  Will  no  other  diet  serve  you  but  poor  Jack  ? 

4.  Which  flower  does  your  mother  Hke  best  ? 

5.  What  harm  can  a  naked  frog  do  us  ? 

6.  Will  the  town  crier  tell  us  of  an  auction,  or  of  a  lost  pocket- 
book,  or  of  a  show  of  beautiful  wax  figures,  or  of  some  monstrous 
beast  more  horrible  than  any  in  the  caravan  ? 

7.  Why  did  no  smile  of  welcome  brighten  upon  his  face  ? 

8.  What  did  Peterson-Sahib  mean  by  the  elephant  dance  ? 

9.  How  many  people  have  ever  come  to  know  a  wild  animal  ? 


ADJECTIVES  25 

10.  What  important  business  made  you  late  to  dinner  ? 

11.  What  plant  we  in  this  apple  tree  ? 

12.  What  other  man  would  have  discovered  so  many  virtues 
under  so  mean  a  dress  ? 

13.  What  do  people  fish  for  in  this  country  ? 

14.  Does  that  star-spangled  banner  yet  wave 

O'er  the  land  of  the  free,  and  the  home  of  the  brave  ? 

15.  Where  did  you  get  your  eyes  so  blue  ? 

16.  Who  will  exchange  old  lamps  for  new  ones  ? 

17.  What  makes  your  cheek  like  a  warm,  white  rose  ? 

IX.     ADJECTIVES 

24.  From  the  sentence,  '^  The  road  led  us  to  a  gate,  and 
that  to  a  dooryard  and  a  house/'  we  get  a  picture,  but  it  is 
neither  definite  nor  attractive.  Contrast  it  with  the  picture 
that  we  get  from  this  sentence,  ^^  The  pleasant,  elm-shaded 
road  led  us  to  a  rustic  gate,  and  that  to  a  green  dooryard, 
and  a  long,  low,  brown  house.''  The  difference  is  caused 
by  the  descriptive  words  in  the  second  sentence.  Which 
words  describe  the  road  ?  the  gate  ?  the  dooryard  ?  the 
house  ? 

These  descriptive  words  go  with  nouns,  and  describe  the 
object  named  by  the  noun.  We  call  them  adjectives.  An 
adjective  is  a  part  of  speech. 

Adjectives  are  said  to  modify  the  nouns  they  go  with,  and 
are  called  modifiers. 

j  25.  Most  adjectives  describe  objects  by  telling  size,  shape, 
color,  texture,  or  other  qualities.  A  few  adjectives  tell 
number  or  amount;  as,  five  minutes,  much  patience.  A 
few  merely  point  out ;  as,  this  meadow,  next  Christmas. 
The  words  a,  an,  and  the  are  adjectives. 

26.  When  several  adjectives  modify  the  same  noun,  they 
form  a  series,  and  are  usually  separated  from  each  other  by 
commas  ;   as,  "A  hollow,  booming,  ominous  cry  rang  out 


26  ADJECTIVES 

suddenly,  and  startled  the  dark  edges  of  the  forest/'  In 
such  a  sentence  as  this,  "  Four  little  old  French  ladies  rose  to 
dance  the  minuet, '^  no  commas  should  be  used,  because  the 
adjectives  modify  more  than  the  noun  ladies.  Four  modifies 
little  old  French  ladies ;  little  modifies  old  French  ladies ;  old 
modifies  French  ladies ;  and  French  modifies  ladies. 

27.  Sometimes  adjectives  modify  a  pronoun  instead  of  a 
noun,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  Tom  missed  the  word,  and  I, 
happy  and  triumphant,  took  his  place  at  the  head/'  How 
do  we  know  that  the  adjectives  happy  and  triumphant 
modify  the  pronoun  If 

Summary.  —  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  point  out  or 
describe  an  object  and  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Adjectives  usually  precede  the  nouns  they  modify  but 
follow  the  pronouns. 

When  several  adjectives  modify  a  single  noun,  they  are 
separated  by  commas. 

A  modifier  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  that  goes  with 
another  word  to  affect  its  meaning. 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  tell  what  they  modify.  Account  for  the 
punctuation. 

1.  On  another  side  stood  an  old  piano,  a  tinkling,  rattling,  merry- 
making old  piano,  played  by  a  young  lady  with  a  melancholy  smile. | 

2.  In  the  dark  valley  that  ran  down  to  a  httle  river.  Father 
Wolf  heard  the  dry,  angry,  snarly,  singsong  whine  of  a  tiger. 

3.  A  small  girl,  with  twinkling  eyes  and  a  merry  face,  got  up 
and  made  her  way  to  the  front. 

4.  Only  loving  fingers  could  have  taken  those  tiny,  even  stitches. 

5.  Charles  carried  water  for  the  circus  men,  while  I,  scornful 
and  lazy  but  envious,  sat  on  the  fence  and  watched  him. 

6.  Mammy  Tittleback  is  a  splendid,  great  tortoise-shell  cat. 

7.  I  found  myself  sinking  into  some  horrible,  soft,  slimy,  sticky 
substance. 


ADJECTIVES  27 

8.  Few  ships  come  to  Rivermouth  now. 

9.  Caesar  has  one  of  the  finest,  deepest-toned  voices  I  ever  heard. 

10.  You  can  speak  and  smile  cheerfully  while  you  are  enjoying 
every  comfort  of  a  snug,  warm  fireside,  but  you  should  not  expect 
us,  hungry,  wet,  and  cold,  to  be  in  the  same  cheerful  mood. 

11.  Suddenly  the  church  clock  tolled  a  deep,  dull,  hollow,  mel- 
ancholy "one." 

12.  The  next  best  tiling  to  cold  potato  and  cream  is  cold  roast 
chicken,  and  occasionally  I  found  a  good  fat  drumstick  or  a  curling 
neck  from  whose  corrugated  bones  I  nibbled  savory  morsels. 

Exercise  2.  —  Write  sentences  using  the  following  words 
as  adjectives.  Make  your  sentences  such  that  they  reveal 
the  meaning  of  the  adjectives. 


awkward 

brilliant 

clammy 

false 

glassy 

graceful 

greedy 

huge 

mild 

moist 

pathetic 

shaggy 

slight 

sly 

soggy 

Exercise   3.  —  Write  sentences  containing  the  following 
nouns,  each  modified  by  two  or  more  adjectives:  — 


cabbage 

carpet 

cloud 

deed 

garden 

grapes 

hand 

hat 

pupil 

room 

machine 

miU 

ship 

story 

teacher 

28.  In  the  following  sentences,  what  word  describes  the 
statue  ?    the  bureau  ?    the  lamp  ?    the  rings  ? 

A  bronze  statue  of  Benjamin  Franklin  stood  in  Lafayette  Park. 

The  mahogany  bureau  contained  a  desk  with  many  drawers 
and  pigeon  holes. 

We  grew  tired  of  the  gorgeousness  of  our  parlor  lamp. 

Indians  of  both  sexes  are  fond  of  bracelets,  necklaces,  and  finger 
rings. 

These  four  descriptive  words  are  name  words,'  hence  by 
nature  they  are  nouns ;  but  in  these  sentences  they  are  us 
as  adjectives,  and  should  therefore  be  called  adjectives. 


c. 


28  ADVERBS 

Exercise  4.  —  Write  sentences  in  which  the  following  nouns 
are  used  as  adjectives:  — 

silver,  copper,  tin,  iron,  steel, 
maple,  oak,  pine,  hickory,  cedar, 
kitchen,  hall,  cellar,  roof,  library, 
hand,  head,  foot,  cheek,  neck. 

Think  of  ten  other  nouns  that  may  be  used  as  adjectives.. 


X.     ADVERBS 

29.  In  the  sentence,  ''  The  donkey  ate  an  armful  of 
green  grass/'  we  are  told  what  action  the  donkey  performed, 
but  we  are  not  told  the  manner  in  which  he  performed 
the  action.  Very  often  manner  is  worth  telling,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "  The  donkey  ate  leisurely  an  armful  of  green 
grass." 

Since  the  word  leisurely  tells  how  the  donkey  ate,  it  must 
go  with  the  word  ate.  We  say  of  it  what  we  said  of  adjectives, 
that  it  modifies  the  word  it  goes  with.  Since  it  modifies  a 
verb,  it  is  different  from  any  part  of  speech  that  we  have 
studied  before.     We  call  it  an  adverb. 

30.  The  great  difference  between  adjectives  and  adverbs 
is  this,  that  the  adj-ective  modifies  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  and 
the   adverb  usually  modifies   a  verb.     Adjectives   describe 
objects,  which  are  named  by  nouns,  and  adverbs  usually  , 
describe  actions,  which  are  asserted  by  verbs. 

31.  Not  all  adverbs  tell  manner.  They  frequently  tell 
time,  place,  direction,  degree,  or  other  circumstances;  as 
in  these  sentences :  — 

Now  the  cow  would  be  eating  in  one  place,  and  then  she  would 
walk  to  another. 

Here  and  there  a  snag  lifted  its  nose  out  of  the  water  like  a  shark. 
For  weeks  his  ship  sailed  onward  over  a  lonely  ocean. 
Mother's  sudden  cry  frightened  me  terribly. 


j^. 


ADVERBS  29 

32.  It  was  pointed  out  in  Lesson  IX  that  adjectives  fre- 
quently tell  some  quality  of  an  object.  Sometimes  we  wish 
to  tell  in  what  degree  this  quality  is  possessed,  as  in  the 
expressions,  a  very  tall  man,  an  exceedingly  hot  day,  too  ripe 
fruit  Here  the  words  very,  exceedingly,  and  too  go  with  the 
adjectives  tall,  hot,  and  ripe  to  denote  degree.  Such  words 
are  said  to  modify  the  adjectives  they  go  with.  Words  that 
modify  adjectives  are  also  called  adverbs. 

Note.  —  A  group  of  words  like  very  tall  and  exceedingly  hot  may 
be  called  an  adjective  element.  Its  base  word  is  an  adjective, 
modified  by  an  adverb.  It  is  the  whole  element,  or  group  of  words, 
that  modifies  the  noun. 

Adverbs  of  degree  may  modify  adverbs  as  well  as  adjectives, 
as  in  the  sentences,  ^^  The  fox  ran  very  swiftly/'  '^  You  speak 
too  rapidly." 

Summary.  —  An  adverb  is  a  word  that  modifies  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

Adverbs  usually  tell  time,  place,  manner,  direction,  or 
degree. 

Unless  a  sentence  is  transposed,  the  adverb  should  be  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  word  it  modifies. 

Adverbs  in  a  series  are  separated  from  each  other  by 
commas. 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  adverbs  in  the  following 
sentences.  Tell  what  each  adverb  modifies,  and  what  it 
denotes. 

1.  People  with  lanterns  rushed  hither  and  thither. 

2.  The  island  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  scarcely  per- 
ceptible creek. 

3.  And  so  the  teacher  turned  him  out, 

And  still  he  lingered  near. 
And  waited  patiently  about 
Till  Mary  did  appear. 


30  ADVERBS 

^j     4.   Faintly,  in  gentle  whiffs,  the  lilies  on  the  low  marble  shelf 
threw  off  their  delicate  fra^grance. 

5.  Quackalina  was  sitting  happily  among  the  reeds  with  her  dear 
ones  under  her  wings,  while  Sir  Sooty  waddled  proudly  around  her. 

6.  In  youth  the  tulip  tree  has  a  trunk  peculiarly  smooth. 

7.  On  one  occasion  Gypsy  put  in  her  head,  and  lapped  up  six 
custard  pies  that  had  been  placed  b^  the  casement  to  cool. 

8.  No  wild  animals  were  ever  trained  by  the  ancients. 

9.  The  paper  was  passed  skillfully  from  desk  to  desk  until  it 
finally  reached  my  hands. 

10.  Messua's  husband  had  some  remarkably  fine  buffaloes  that* 
worried  him  exceedingly. 

11.  The  charcoal  burners  went  off  very  valiantly  in  single  file. 

12.  Sometimes  my  head  almost  aches  with  the  variety  of  my 
knowledge. 

13.  Knots  of  gossips  lingered  here  and  there  near  the  place. 

14.  This  talk  amused  me  greatly,  but  it  went  in  at  one  ear  and 
out  at  the  other. 

15.  My  father  invested  his  money  so  securely  in  the  banking 
business  that*  he  was  never  able  to  get  any  of  it  out  again. 

16.  Yonder  I  shall  sit  down  and  get  knowledge. 

17.  Then  he  would  crawl  forward  inch  by  inch,  and  wait  till  the 
seal  came  up  to  breathe. 

18.  No  one  can  work  well  without  sleep. 

19.  This  jackal  was  peculiarly  low,  a  cleaner-up  of  village  rub- 
bish heaps,  desperately  timid,  or  wildly  bold,  everlastingly  hungry, 
and  full  of  cunning  that  never  did  him  any  good. 

20.  The  Black  Panther  raised  his  head  and  yawned  —  elab- 
orately, carefully,  and  ostentatiously. 

Account  for  the  commas  in  the  last  sentence. 

Exercise  2.  —  Write  sentences  containing  adverbs  of 
manner  modifying  the  following  verbs :  — 

comes  goes  plays  reads  sings 

skates  speaks  studies  walks  works 

Exercise  3.  —  Write  sentences  containing  the  following 
adverbs :  — 

upward,  downward,  forward,  backward,  headlong,  north,  south- 
ward. 


PHRASES  31 

everywhere,  nowhere,  somewhere,  anywhere. 

seldom,  often,  always,  sometimes,  forever. 

perfectly,  unusually,  unspeakably,  positively,  miserably. 

Use  the  last  five  adverbs  to  modify  adjectives  or  adverbs. 
What  will  they  denote  when  so  used? 

Exercise  4.  —  Form  adverbs  from  the  following  adjec- 
tives:— 

careless  dreary  firm  gentle  hasty 

noble  painful  sharp  slow  wide 

What  part  of  speech  are  the  words  chilly,  deadly,  holy, 
kindly,  lively,  lovely  f    Use  them  in  sentences  to  find  out. 

XI.     PHRASES.     ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES 

33.  We  cannot  always  describe  or  point  out  objects  as 
fully  as  we  wish  by  means  of  adjectives,  and  so  we  use  an- 
other sort  of  modifier,  which  is  not  a  single  word,  but  a  group 
of  words.  In  the  sentence,  '^  Broad,  flat  fields  without  fences 
stretch  in  every  direction,''  we  describe  the  fields  by  the 
two  adjectives  broad  and  flat,  and  by  the  group  of  words, 
without  fences.  Thus  the  noun  fields  has  three  modifiers, 
and  they  are  very  well  placed,  two  of  them  coming  befor,e  the 
noun,  and  one  of  them  after  it. 

In  the  group  of  words  without  fences,  the  two  words  are 
•closely  related  to  each  other.  In  fact,  neither  of  them 
could  be  in  the  sentence  at  all  without  the  other.  Such  a 
group  of  related  words  is  called  a  phrase.  When  a  phrase 
modifies  a  noun,  we  say  it  is  an  adjective  phrase. 

34.  In  the  same  sentence  there  is  another  phrase,  in  every 
direction,  telling  where  the  fields  stretch.  Since  this  phrase 
modifies  the  verb,  it  performs  the  same  office  as  an  adverb, 
and  we  therefore  call  it  an  adverbial  phrase. 


32  PHRASES 

35.  Phrases  never  consist  of  fewer  than  two  words,  and 
they  may  consist  of  a  good  many,  for  it  is  possible  to  have 
one  or  more  phrases  within  a  phrase.  In  the  sentence,  "  I 
was  born  in  a  stable  on  the  outskirts  of  a  small  town  in 
Maine,"  the  verb  was  born  is  modified  by  a  long  phrase,  in  a 
stable  on  the  outskirts  of  a  small  town  in  Maine.  The  noun 
stable  in  this  phrase  is  modified  by  the  phrase  on  the  outskirts 
of  a  small  town  in  Maine.  The  noun  outskirts  in  this  second 
phrase  is  modified  by  the  phrase  of  a  small  town  in  Maine. 
The  noun  town  in  this  third  phrase  is  modified  by  the  fourth 
phrase,  in  Maine. 

36.  Phrases  do  not  alw^ays  modify  the  word  they  come 
next  to ;  they  modify  the  word  whose  meaning  they  tell 
something  about.  In  the  sentence,  '^  I  scrambled  through 
the  evergreens  to  my  friend's  little  hut  just  before  sunset,'^ 
there  is  no  phrase  within  another  phrase,  but  there  are  three 
entirely  distinct  phrases.     What  are  they? 

37.  A  series  of  phrases  consists  of  two  or  more  phrases 
each  modifying  the  same  word ;  as,  ^'  Ours  is  a  government 
of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people.'^  Phrases 
in  a  series  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  comma. 
Why  do  not  the  phrases  in  the  sentence  in  §  35  form  a 
series  ? 

It  might  seem  at  first  thought  that  the  sentence  in  §  36 
contains  a  series  of  three  phrases ;  but  it  does  not,  for  the 
phrases  do  not  modify  the  same  word.  Through  the  ever- 
greens modifies  scrambled;  to  my  friendJs  little  hut  modifies 
scrambled  through  the  evergreens.  What  does  the  third  phrase 
modify  ? 

In  the  punctuation  of  phrases  a  good  deal  must  be  left  to 
the  judgment  of  the  writer.  That  punctuation  is  best  which 
most  clearly  reveals  the  structure  and  meaning  of  the  sen- 
tence. 


PHRASES  33 

Summary.  —  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  having 
neither  a  subject  nor  a  predicate,  and  used  like  a  part  of 
speech. 

A  phrase  is  often  used  like  an  adjective  to  modify  a  noun, 
or  like  an  adverb  to  modify  a  verb. 

Phrases  in  a  series  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
comma. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  phrases  in  these  sentences, 
and  tell  what  each  phrase  modifies.  Account  for  the  punc- 
tuation of  the  phrases  in  sentences  2  and  9.  Why  are 
commas  omitted  in  sentence  5? 

1.  I  passed  a  very  comfortable  night  in  the  carrot  bin. 

2.  The  four  little  rabbits  lived  with  their  mother,  in  a  sand 
bank,  underneath  the  root  of  a  very  big  fir  tree. 

3.  He  went  along  over  hills  and  mountains,  and  on  the  third 
day  came  to  a  wide  forest. 

4.  During  those  long  winter  evenings  I  read  six  of  Scott's  novels 
aloud  to  my  mother. 

5.  Mr.  Jeremy  Fisher  lived  in  a  little  damp  house  amongst  the 
buttercups  at  the  edge  of  a  pond. 

6.  On  that  evening,  before  sunset,  some  women  were  washing 
clothes  on  the  upper  step  of  the  flight  that  led  down  into  the  basin 
of  the  Pool  of  Siloam. 

7.  On  the  fourth  day  after  our  arrival  came  a  letter  from  my 
mamma. 

8.  Jelly  fishes  generally  float  near  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  are 
often  washed  up  on  the  shore  by  the  waves. 

9.  Where  no  human  hand  would  have  dared  to  rest,  the  youn?? 
lions  crawled  fearlessly  —  across  the  knotty  muscles  of  the  back, 
over  the  sinewy  neck,  across  the  death-dealing  paws,  even  between 
the  frightful  jaws. 

10.  Tom  arched  his  back  like  a  contortionist  at  a  circus. 

11.  The  women  of  the  different  provinces  in  Holland  are  known 
by  their  head  dresses. 

12.  The  last  words  rang  out  like  silver  trumpets. 

13.  A  farm  without  a  boy  would  very  soon  come  to  grief. 

14.  In  winter  I  get  up  at  night. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  3 


34  PREPOSITIONS, 

38.  Analyzing  a  sentence  is  the  process  of  separating  it 
into  its  parts,  and  telling  the  relation  between  those  parts. 
In  analyzing  the  sentences  in  the  following  exercise  proceed 
according  to  this  outline :  — 

(1)  Tell  whether  the  sentence  is  declarative  or  interroga- 
tive. 

(2)  Divide  it  into  subject  and  predicate. 

(3)  Select  the  simple  subject  and  give  its  modifiers. 

(4)  Select  the  simple  predicate  and  give  its  modifiers. 

(5)  If  a  predicate  is  compound,  select  the  two  or  more 
predicate  verbs,  and  then  give  the  modifiers  of  each. 

Tell  the  exact  truth  in  good,  clear  English.  For  example, 
in  analyzing  the  expression,  the  four  little  rabhitSy  do  not  say 
that  they  fouVy  and  little  are  adjectives  modifying  rabbits y  but 
say  that  rabbits  is  modified  by  the  adjectives  littley  foury  and 
the.     Why  should  they  be  given  in  this  order? 

Exercise. — Analyze  sentences  2,  3,  5,  7,  8,  11,  12,  13, 
and  14  in  the  exercise  on  p.  33. 

XII.     PREPOSITIONS 

39.  In  the  preceding  lesson  we  considered  a  phrase  as  a 
unit.  We  shall  now  examine  its  structure,  and  see  what 
parts   it  is   composed   of.     If  we  look   carefully  at    these 

^  '  with  their  mother 

to  a  wide  forest 
over  the  sinewy  neck 
like  silver  trumpets 

we  see  that  the  first  word  is  not  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  If  we  try  to  put  this  word  any- 
where else  in  the  phrase,  we  see  that  it  must  come  at  the 
beginning ;  in  short,  that  it  is  the  introductory  word  of  the 
phrase.  If  we  had  only  this  introductory  word  given,  the 
word  mth,  for  instance,  we  should  ask  at  once  mth  what  ? 


PREPOSITIONS  35 

or  vxith  whom?  The  answer  to  this  second  question  is  their 
mother,  the  rest  of  the  phrase. 

If  we  examine  the  other  three  phrases  in  the  same  way, 
we  shall  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  phrase  is  made  up 
of  two  parts:  (1)  an  introductory  word,  (2)  an  answer  to 
the  question  made  by  putting  whom  or  what  after  the  intro- 
ductory word.  We  call  the  introductory  word  a  preposition, 
and  we  say  that  the  rest  of  the  phrase  is  the  object  of  the 
preposition.     A  preposition  is  a  part  of  speech. 

A  phrase  that  consists  of  a  preposition  and  its  object  is 
called  a  prepositional  phrase.  Not  all  phrases  are  of  this 
kind.     We  shall  study  the  other  kinds  later. 

40.  There  are  not  a  great  many  prepositions  in  the  English 
language,  hardly  more  than  a  hundred  in  all.  Most  of  them 
are  short  words,  and  of  very  great  usefulness.  Some  of  the 
commonest  are:  across,  after,  before,  between,  by,  for, 
from,  in,  over,  to,  through,  toward,  under,  with,  without. 

41.  The  object  of  a  preposition  may  be  a  single  word,  as 
in  the  phrase  without  fences,  but  oftener  it  is  a  group  of 
words.  The  base  word  of  the  group  is  usually  a  noun.  A 
pronoun  also  may  be  the  object  of  a  preposition,  as  in  the 
phrases  for  me,  to  him,  with  us.  The  object  of  a  preposition 
may  be  compound,  as  in  the  phrases,  over  land  and  sea,  by 
day  and  night. 

42.  In  Lesson  XI,  it  was  pointed  out  that  a  phrase  modi- 
fies a  noun  or  a  verb.  It  does  so  because  the  preposition 
shows  a  certain  relation  between  its  object  and  the  noun  or 
verb  that  the  phrase  modifies.  In  the  sentence,  ^'  The  por- 
ters at  the  German  railroad  stations  are  dressed  in  fine  green 
uniforms, '^  the  preposition  at  shows  a  relation  of  place  be- 
tween the  porters  and  the  German  railroad  stations,  and  the 
preposition  in  shows  a  relation  of  manner  between  the  act  of 
dressing  and  the  fine  green  uniforms. 


36  PREPOSITIONS 

Summary.  —  A  prepositional  phrase  consists  of  a  prepo- 
sition and  its  object. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  that  is  used  with  its  object  to  form 
a  phrase,  and  shows  the  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word 
the  phrase  modifies. 

Note.  —  A  prepositional  phrase  in  its  natural  order  consists  of 
(1)  the  preposition  and  (2)  its  object. 

The  object  of  a  preposition  is  found  by  asking  the  question 
made  by  putting  whom  or  what  after  the  preposition. 

The  object  of  a  preposition  may  be  simple  or  compound.     , 
The  base  word  of  the  object  may  be  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  prepositional  phrases  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Tell  what  each  phrase  modifies.  Divide 
each  phrase  into  preposition  and  object.  Find  the  base 
word  of  the  object,  and  tell  what  part  of  speech  it  is. 

1.  This  monster  lives  in  a  den  under  yonder  mountain  with  a 
brother  of  his. 

2.  I  carried  both  letters  in  my  apron  pocket. 

3.  At  the  age  of  ten  years  he  fled  from  the  multiplication  table 
and  ran  away  to  sea.  '^ 

4.  In  the  dusk  of  spring  evenings  we  sat  on  the  window  seat 
and  watched  the  lights  come  out  on  the  high  bluff  and  the  long 
bridge. 

5.  The  stormy  March  is  come  at  last, 

With  wind,  and  cloud,  and  changing  skies. 

6.  With  a  fair  and  strong  breeze  we  soon  ran  into  the  little  cove 
to  the  northward  of  Fort  Moultrie. 

7.  On  the  projecting  bluffs,  and  occasionally  on  the  very  moun- 
tain tops,  stand  the  ruins  of  great  castles  of  the  olden  times. 

8.  In  the  ancient  city  of  London  on  a  certain  autumn  day  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  boy  was  born  to  a  poor 
family  of  the  name  of  Canty. 

9.  Now  I  was  comforted  by  the  thought  of  a  tassel,  and  an  ivory 
handle,  and  blue  and  gold  changeable  silk. 

10.   A  polar  storm  can  blow  for  ten  days  without  a  break. 


PREPOSITIONS  37 

11.  The  aerial  path  of  Hushwing,  from  his  nest  in  the  swamp 
to  his  watchtower  on  the  clearing's  edge,  led  him  past  the  pool  and 
the  crouching  panther. 

12.  All  the  little  boys  and  girls, 
With  rosy  cheeks  and  flaxen  curls, 
And  sparkling  eyes  and  teeth  like  pearls, 
Tripping  and  skipping,  ran  merrily  after 

The  wonderful  music,  with  shouting  and  laughter. 

What  part  of  speech  are  these  words:  yonder,  sentence  1, 
apron  2,  multiplication  3,  spring  4,  very  7,  autumn  8,  break  10? 

What  is  peculiar  about  the  object  of  at  in  sentence  5,  and 
of  to  in  sentence  6? 

43.  Good  English  requires  accuracy  in  the  use  of  preposi- 
tions. Study  the  following  prepositions,  and  avoid  errors 
in  their  use. 

Among  and  between.     The  word  between  usually  refers  to 

only  two  persons  or  things,  while  among  refers  to  more  than 

two. 

I  walked  between  my  father  and  my  mother. 

She  walked  among  us  like  an  angel. 

At  and  in.  We  use  in  when  speaking  of  countries  and 
large  cities,  at  when  speaking  of  villages  or  buildings. 

The  train  arrives  in  Los  Angeles  at  noon. 
The  train  stopped  at  every  little  station. 

At  and  to.  At  conveys  the  idea  of  being  in  a  place,  and 
to  conveys  the  idea  of  going  to  a  place. 

Were  you  at  school  yesterday? 

I  came  to  school  early  this  morning. 

My  sister  is  at  home. 

We  speak  of  going  to  school,  to  church,  to  the  factory, 
to  the  store,  to  the  office,  etc.,  but  we  do  not  use  to  before 
home.  We  say  ^^  I  am  at  home,''  or  ^'  Come  home,''  in  the 
latter  case  omitting  the  preposition  entirely. 


38  PREPOSITIONS 

Beside  and  besides.      Beside  means  by  the  side  of,  and 
besides  means  in  addition  to. 

little  Em'ly  sat  beside  David. 
Nobody  remained  besides  the  old  nurse. 

By  and  with.     By  refers  to  the  agent,  or  doer  of  an  action, 
and  with  to  the  instrument,  or  means  employed. 

The  cherry  tree  was  cut  down  by  George  Washington  with  a 
little  hatchet. 

In  and  into.    In  usually  conveys  the  idea  of  rest,  and  into 
of  motion. 

We  stayed  in  the  library  all  the  evening. 
Our  hostess  took  us  into  the  Simmons  Library. 
I  went  into  the  Bank. 
I  put  my  money  in  the  Bank. 

Ofif.     This  preposition  should  not  be  followed  by  of.    We 
should  say. 

The  pitcher  fell  off  the  table. 
I  got  off  the  car. 

In  place  of  the  word  onto  we  should  use  on  or  upon. 

He  climbed  upon  the  roof  of  the  pilot  house. 
He  stepped  on  a  loose  board. 

Some  words  are  followed  by  certain  prepositions  to  express 
certain  meanings ;  as. 

Agree  with  thine  adversary. 

Brutus  agreed  to  the  plan. 

Brutus  differed  with  Cassius. 

My  watch  is   different  from  yours. 

Imogen  parted  from  him  with  tears. 

Imogen  would  not  part  with  her  bracelet. 

Many  people  died  of  yellow  fever. 

I  am  sorry  for  the  mistake. 


TERM  OF  ADDRESS  39 

Exercise.  —  Supply  the  correct  preposition  in  each  of  these 
sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each  case:  — 

1.  The  fugitive  slave  ran  the  trees,  and  took  his  stand 

two  large  cypresses. 

2.  While  we  were  New  Orleans,  we  stayed  the  St. 

Charles  Hotel. 

3.  And  so the  silent  sea 

I  wait  the  muffled  oar. 

4.  In  that  Sunday  school  class  there  was  no  girl Gertrude. 

5.  This  mark  mUst  have  been  made a  knife. 

6.  When  you  are Rome,  you  must  do  as  the  Romans  do. 

7.  Come the  garden,  Maud. 

8.  Put  the  silver a  safe  place. 

9.  John  Gilpin's  wig  fell his  head. 

10.  Get this  stump  so  that  you  can  see  better. 

11.  I  left  the  programs home. 

12.  Nobody  agrees Kate  about  renting  the  cottage. 

13.  Did  Will  agree your  plans  for  the  wedding  ? 

14.  Charlie  differed his  family  about  saving  his  money. 

15.  An  apricot  has  a  different  flavor a  peach. 

16.  What  did  the  crew  die ? 

17.  Aren't  you  sorry his  misfortune  ? 

18.  The    child  cried  when  he  parted  his  playthings,  and 

would  not  be  comforted  when  he  parted his  old  playmates. 


XIII.     TERM    OF   ADDRESS.      EXCLAMATORY  NOUN 

44.  When  we  speak  directly  to  persons,  we  often  call  them 
by  name;  as,  —  ^ 

Anne,  sister  Anne,  do  you  see  any  one  coming  ? 

We  do  this  for  several  reasons,  —  sometimes  for  polite- 
ness, sometimes  to  show  clearly  just  whom  we  are  speaking 
to.  This  name  is  not  necessary  to  the  structure  of  the 
sentence;  that  is,  it  forms  no  part  of  the  subject  or  the 
predicate.  We  say,  therefore,  that  it  is  independent.  We 
call  it  a  term  of  address. 


40  EXCLAMATORY  NOUN 

45.  Sometimes,  instead  of  using  a  person's  name,  we  in- 
vent a  term  of  address,  as  when  the  Arab  said  to  his  horse, 

*'We  are  far  from  home,  O  racer  with  the  swiftest  winds^  but  God 
is  with  us." 

What  noun  is  the  base  word  of  this  term  of  address  ? 

46.  A  term  of  address  may  come  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence,  or  at  the  end,  or  somewhere  within  the  sentence. 
It  must  be  set  off  by  commas  to  show  that  it  is  independent. 

47.  Sometimes  a  noun  or  a  noun  with  modifiers  is  used  as 
an  exclamation ;   thus,  — 

A  rainbow  !  it  is  too  late  in  the  day  for  that. 
Joy  to  the  world  !   the  Lord  has  come. 

A  noun  used  like  rainbow  and  joy  is  called  an  exclamatory 
noun.  What  feeling  does  the  exclamatory  noun  in  the 
first  sentence  express?    in  the  second? 

Summary.  —  A  term  of  address  is  a  word  or  a  group  of 
words  used  as  a  name  to  show  to  whom  a  remark  is  made. 

The  base  word  of  a  term  of  address  is  usually  a  noun. 

An  exclamatory  noun  is  a  noun  used  to  express  strong  or 
sudden  feeling.     It  may  be  modified  or  unmodified. 

When  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  is  no  part  of  the  subject 
or  the  predicate  of  a  sentence,  it  is  said  to  be  independent. 

A  term  of  address  and  an  exclamatory  noun  are  indepen- 
dent elements  in  a  sentence. 

A  term  of  address  is  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
a  comma. 

An  exclamatory  noun  is  set  off  by  an  exclamation  point. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  terms  of  address  in  the  following 
sentences.  Find  the  base  word  of  each.  Select  also  the 
exclamatory  nouns,  and  tell  what  feeling  they  express. 

1.  Little  brother,  canst  thou  raise  me  to  my  feet  ? 

2.  "Now,  my  dears,"  said  old  Mrs.  Rabbit  one  morning,  **  you 


IMPERATIVE  SENTENCES  41 

may  go  into  the  fields  or  down  the  lane,  but  don't  go  into  Mr. 
McGregor's  garden." 

3.  Indeed  I  was  seeking  thee,  Flathead,  but  each  time  we  meet 
thou  art  longer  and  broader  by  the  length  of  my  arm. 

4.  Come,  Lillie,  it  is  time  to  go  to  bed. 

5.  Sweet,  sweet  home  I  there's  no  place  like  home. 

6.  Why,  Father,  you  are  rather  old  to  play  cat's  cradle. 

7.  Sail  on,  sail  on,  O  ship  of  State ! 
Sail  on,  O  Union  strong  and  great ! 

8.  Sir,  I  humbly  beg  your  pardon. 

9.  I  understand,  noble  lord,  that  you  have  lost  two  of  your  men. 

10.  Jefferson,  I  think  I  will  go  down  into  the  kitchqn  and  bake 
a  pie. 

11.  A  horse!  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  ! 

12.  There  is  none  like  thee  in  the  jungle,  wise,  old,  strong,  and 
most  beautiful  Kaa. 

13.  Our  price,  your  royal  highness,  is  three  shillings. 

14.  Grand  old  outlaw,  hero  of  a  thousand  lawless  raids,  in  a  few 
minutes  you  will  be  but  a  great  load  of  carrion. 

15.  Brood,  kind  creature,  you  need  not  fear 
Thieves  and  robbers  while  I  am  here. 

16.  Catch  me,  cowardly  knaves,  if  you  can. 

17.  The  stately  homes  of  England  !  how  beautiful  they  stand  I 

18.  O  Captain  !  my  Captain  !  rise  up  and  hear  the  bells. 


XIV.     IMPERATIVE    SENTENCES 

48.  Besides  declarative  and  interrogative  sentences  there 
is  another  kind  of  sentence  used  when  we  speak  directly  to  a 
person  for  the  purpose  of  telling  him  what  to  do ;  as,  /^  Run 
into  the  garden,  and  fetch  me  the  largest  pumpkin  you  can 
find."     This  is  called  an  imperative  sentence. 

49.  The  imperative  sentence  is  often  used  in  giving  orders, 
commands,  or  directions,  but  it  is  used  also  in  giving  advice, 
and  in  making  requests  or  entreaties;  as,  — 

Fling  away  ambition. 
Kindly  reply  by  return  mail. 
Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 


42  IMPERATIVE  SENTENCES 

50.  Usually  only  the  predicate  of  an  imperative  sentence 
is  expressed,  and  so  the  first  word  of  such  a  sentence  is  likely 
to  be  a  verb.  The  subject  is  the  pronoun  you^  thou,  or  ye, 
signifying  the  person  or  persons  addressed.  It  is  customary 
to  omit  this  pronoun,  and  we  say  that  the  subject  is  '^  under- 
stood.''  Occasionally,  however,  it  is  expressed  in  familiar 
conversation ;  as,  ^^  You  go  away.''  Sometimes,  too,  in 
solemn  commands  the  pronoun  thou  or  ye  is  expressed ; 
as,  "  Go  and  do  thou  likewise.''     ^'  Keep  ye  the  law." 

Note  that  the  verb  in  an  imperative  sentence  commands 
rather  than  asserts. 

An  imperative  sentence  is  frequently  preceded  by  a  term 
of  address,  but  this  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  subject; 
as,  **  Father,  hear  our  prayer." 

Summary.  —  An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses 
a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  the  pronoun  you^ 
thou,  or  ye.    This  pronoun  is  usually  omitted. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  what  the  following  imperative  sentences 
denote.  Select  the  predicate  verbs,  and  the  subjects  when- 
ever they  are  expressed.     Select  also  the  terms  of  address. 

1.  Open  everything,  go  everywhere  except  to  this  little  room. 

2.  Come  and  hold  this  skein  of  yarn  for  me. 

3.  Go  and  wash  Kala  Nag,  and  attend  to  his  ears,  and  see  that 
there  are  no  thorns  in  his  feet. 

4.  Don't  count  your  chickens  before  they  are  hatched. 

5.  Rouse  to  some  high  and  holy  work  of  love. 

6.  Don't  you  show  your  face  here  with  a  pocket  on  you.     If 
your  heavy  pants  have  any  in  'em,  rip  'em  out. 

7.  Give  freely  and  receive,  but  take  from  none 
By  greed,  or  force,  or  fraud,  what  is  his  own. 

8.  Learn  to  box,  to  ride,  to  pull  an  oar,  and  to  swim. 

9.  Polly  dear,  say  good  morning  to  Mrs.  Chatterton,  and  then 
run  away. 

10.   Do  the  work  first  which  is  next  at  hand. 


INTERJECTIONS  43 

11.  Turn  again,  Whittington, 
Lord  Mayor  of  London. 

12.  O  Lord  of  Hosts,  provide  a  champion  for  thy  people. 

13.  O  brave  marsh  Mary-buds,  rich  and  yellow, 
Give  me  your  money  to  hold. 

14.  O  Columbine,  open  your  folded  wrapper 
Where  two  twin  turtledoves  dwell. 

15.  O  Cuckoopint,  toll  me  the  purple  clapper 
That  hangs  in  your  clear,  green  bell. 

Account  for  the  commas  in  sentences  1,  3,  8,  9,  and  11. 


XV.    INTERJECTIONS 

51.  There  are  certain  words  like  oh,  alas,  pshaw j  ugh,  that 
are  used  to  express  strong  feeling, — joy,  surprise,  pain, 
disgust,  anger,  etc.  These  words  are  called  interjections. 
An  interjection  is  a  part  of  speech. 

52.*  Interjections  are  no  part  of  the  subject  or  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence;  hence,  like  terms  of  address,  they  are  said 
to  be  independent.  They  are  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  some  mark  of  punctuation,  usually  an  exclama- 
tion point,  sometimes  only  a  comma. 

53.  We  may  use  a  noun  or  a  verb  in  such  a  way  that  it 
becomes  an  interjection;  as,  ^^  Goodness!  what  a  fright  you 
gave  me  !  "  ^^ Hurrah!  the  lake  is  frozen  over! ''  Such  a 
verb  as  hark  is  often  used  as  an  interjection,  not  to  express 
sudden  feeling  so  much  as  to  arrest  attention;  as,  ^^ Hark! 
hark!  the  dogs  do  bark.'' 

54.  The  interjection  0  is  often  used  before  a  term  of  ad- 
dress; as,  '^  0  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works  !  " 

Summary.  —  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express 
sudden  or  strong  feeling. 


44  EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCES 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  interjections  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  tell  what  each  one  is  used  for :  — 

1.  Boom  !     Boom  !  —  two  of  the  guns  had  gone  off  together. 

2.  Alas  !  Amanda,  by  mistake,  had  waked  up  the  httle  boys  an 
hour  too  early. 

3.  Bah  !   men  are  blood  brothers  of  the  monkey  people. 

4.  Hallelujah  !    in  one  day  more  we  shall  be  sitting  in  the  sun- 
shine on  our  own  doorstep. 

5.  O  mother  dear,  Jerusalem, 
When  shall  I  come  to  thee  ? 

6.  Ping  !    ping  !    ping  !    went  the  rifles ;    and  Boom  I   boom  I 
boom  !   answered  the  waves. 

7.  Aha  !   the  world  is  iron  in  these  days. 

8.  Alas  !  it  was  the  head  of  old  Silverspot. 

9.  Scrooge  said,  "Pooh  !  Pooh  !"  and  closed  the  door. 

10.  Hark  !  hark  !   the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings. 

11.  Alack-a-day  !     travelers  encounter  all  the  unusual  bits  of 
weather. 

12.  Hey  !  Willie  Winkie,  are  you  coming  then  ? 

13.  O  comrades,  if  we  must  fight,  let  us  fight  for  ourselves. 

14.  Hush  !   the  winds  roar  hoarse  and  deep. 

15.  Lo,  the  star  which  they  saw  in  the  east  went  before  them  till 
it  came  and  stood  over  where  the  young  child  was. 

16.  Piff !  the  packet  landed  exactly  as  it  was  intended,  on  the 
corn-husk  mat  in  front  of  the  screen  door. 

17.  Oh,  London  is  a  man's  town. 


XVI.     EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCES 

55.  We  have  found  that  sentences  are  made  to  state,  or  to 
asky  or  to  command,  and  hence  are  classified  as  declarative, 
interrogative,  and  imperative. 

There  is  a  fourth  class  of  sentence  which  resembles  an 
interjection,  being  used  to  express  sudden  or  strong  feeling; 
as,  '^  How  calm  and  lovely  the  river  was!  "  "  What  a  pity  it 
is! "  These  are  called  exclamatory  sentences.  They  are 
always  followed  by  an  exclamation  point. 


EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCES  45 

56.  Such  sentences  as  those  just  quoted,  which  begin  with 
how  or  what,  are  exclamatory  in  form  as  well  as  in  sense,  and 
are  therefore  sometimes  called  pure  exclamatory  sentences. 
They  are  always  in  the  transposed  order.  Some  sentences, 
however,  are  exclamatory  only  in  sense.  They  are  in  the 
natural  order,  and  when  printed,  could  not  be  distin- 
guished from  declarative  or  imperative  sentences  if  it  were 
not  for  the  exclamation  point,  which  indicates  that  they 
were  spoken  with  strong  feeling  ;  as,  ^'  Now  you  may  see  that? 
noblest  of  all  ocean  sights  for  beauty,  a  full-rigged  ship  under 
sail !  '^     ^^  Helen  Maria  !   leave  the  room  this  moment !  " 

Summary.  —  An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  that  ex- 
presses sudden  or  strong  feeling. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  why  each  of  these  sentences  is  exclama- 
tory. Rearrange  in  the  natural  order  those  which  are 
transposed.  Divide  each  of  them  into  subject  and  predi- 
cate.    Select  the  simple  subject  and  the  simple  predicate. 

1.  How  soundly  he  sleeps  !  From  what  a  depth  he  draws  that 
easy  breath ! 

2.  What  tales  he  had  told  that  day  ! 

3.  How  doubly  delicious  things  tasted  in  the  clear,  spicy  air 
of  the  woods ! 

4.  How  keen  a  scent  those  children  had  for  apples  in  the  cellar  ! 

5.  Oh,  how  sweet  the  water  was  !     How  it  soothed  the  tender 
spots  under  her  weary  wings !     How  it  cooled  her  ears  and  her  \ 
tired  eyelids ! 

6.  With  what  a  glory  comes  and  goes  the  year ! 

7.  What  a  racket  those  rusty  cannon  had  made  in  the  heyday  of 
their  unchastened  youth  !  What  stories  they  might  tell  now  if 
their  puffy,  metallic  Hps  could  only  speak ! 

8.  Burn  the  hut  over  their  heads  ! 

9.  Ugh  !  may  the  red  mange  destroy  the  dogs  of  this  village  ! 

10.  Talk  of  the  curiosity  of  women  ! 

11.  So  blessedly  evanescent  is  the  memory  of  seasickness ! 

12.  Hark  !  how  the  music  leaps  out  from  his  throat ! 


46  CONJUNCTIONS 

XVII.     CONJUNCTIONS 

57.  Notice  the  sentences,  — 

Every  pine  and  fir  and  hemlock  wore  ermine  too  dear  for  an  earl. 
I  stood  and  watched  by  the  window. 

The  parts  of  the  compound  subject  in  the  first  sentence 
and  of  the  compound  predicate  in  the  second  are  joined  by 
the  word  and.  This  very  common  word  has  a  use  different 
from  that  of  any  word  studied  thus  far  ;  hence  it  is  considered 
another  part  of  speech.  Because  it  is  a  joining  word,  it  is 
called  a  conjunction. 

There  are  many  conjunctions  besides  and  that  we  all  have 
frequent  occasion  to  use.  Among  these  are  nor,  or,  hut, 
yet,   therefore,   so,   and  hence. 

58.  Conjunctions  may  join  not  only  single  words,  such  as 
nouns,  verbs,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs,  but  also 
phrases,  and  even  whole  sentences ;   as,  — 

You  may  enter  without  money  and  without  price. 
The  stiff  rails  were  softened  to  swan's  down, 
And  still  fluttered  down  the  snow. 

59.  Although  the  word  but  is  commonly  used  as  a  conjunc- 
tion, yet,  in  the  sentence,  ''  I  work  every  day  but  Sunday," 
it  is  a  preposition,  and  means  except.  What  is  its  object? 
The  great  difference  between  a  conjunction  and  a  preposi- 
tion is  that  a  preposition  always  has  an  object,  whereas  a 
conjunction  never  has  one. 

Summary.  —  A  conjunction  is  a  word  that  joins  sentences 
or  parts  of  sentences. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  conjunctions  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  tell  what  they  join:  — 

1.  Crow  was  ten  years  old  now,  and  he  was  very  black  and 
polished  and  thin. 

2.  Mount  St.  Michael  was  not  only  strongly  fortified,  but  it 
was  well  guarded  by  nature. 


CONJUNCTIONS  47 

3.  The  horse  neither  switches  his  tail,  nods  his  head,  nor  stamps 
his  feet. 

4.  Thirty  years  later,  the  remnants  of  her  wedding  gowns,  — 
the  blue  silk,  the  black  silk,  the  striped  silk,  and  the  plaid  silk,  — 
were  cut  into  diamonds  and  squares,  and  then  pieced  together  lov- 
ingly and  proudly  into  a  patchwork  quilt. 

5.  There  are  several  steamboats  which  run  up  and  down  the 
Seine  like  omnibuses,  and  the  charge  to  passengers  is  about  two 
cents  apiece. 

6.  After  steaming  for  several  hours  over  the  smooth  river  and 
between  these  flat  lowlands,  we  reach  the  city  of  Rotterdam. 

7.  These  great  ice  streams  are  always  moving  slowly  downwards  ; 
hence  they  carry  off,  year  by  year,  the  snow  which  falls  upon  the 
mountain  above. 

8.  The  stars  danced  overhead,  and  by  his  side  the  broad  and 
shallow  river  ran  over  its  stony  bed  with  a  loud  but  soothing  murmur 
that  filled  all  the  air  with  entreaty. 

9.  The  things  that  Mowgli  did  and  saw  and  heard  when  he  was 
wandering  from  one  people  to  another,  with  or  without  his  four 
companions,  would  make  many  stories. 

10.  I  drove  the  cows  home  through  the  sweet  ferns  and  down 
the  rocky  slopes. 

11.  The  sucker's  mouth  is  not  formed  for  the  gentle  angleworm 
nor  the  delusive  fly  of  the  fisherman. 

12.  Our  ancestors  were  very  worthy  people,  but  their  wall 
papers  were  abominable. 

13.  The  keeper  of  the  lodgings  did  not  supply  meals  to  his 
guests;  so  we  breakfasted  at  a  small  chophouse  in  a  crooked 
street. 

14.  The  Northmen  had  no  compass;  they  must  steer  by  the 
I  sun  or  by  the  stars,  guess  at  their  rate  of  sailing,  and  tell  by  that 
I  how  many  more  days  distant  was  their  destination. 

15.  Through  this  silence  and  through  this  waste,  where  the  sud- 
den lights  flapped  and  went  out  again,  the  sleigh  and  the  two  that 
pulled  it  crawled  like  things  in  a  nightmare. 

16.  There  may  be  times  when  you  cannot  find  help,  but  there 
is  no  time  when  you  cannot  give  help. 

17.  Over  the  meadows  and  through  the  woods, 
To  grandfather's  house  we  go. 

18.  The  world  has  never  had  a  good  definition  of  the  word 
liberty,  and  the  American  people  are  much  in  want  of  one. 


48  CLAUSES 

XVIII.     CLAUSES.     SIMPLE  SENTENCES 

60.  We  have  learned  that  a  sentence  must  contain  a  subject 
and  a  predicate.  We  have  another  name  for  a  combination 
of  subject  and  predicate.     We  call  it  a  clause. 

61.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  but  one  clause,  we  call  it  a 
simple  sentence  ;  and  we  say  that  this  clause  is  indepen- 
dent, because  it  can  stand  alone  and  make  sense. 

62.  A  simple  sentence  may  have  a  compound  subject  or  a 
compound  predicate,  or  both,  and  yet  so  long  as  these  sub- 
jects and  predicates  go  together,  we  say  that  there  is  only 
one  clause ;  as  in  the  sentence,  ^'  The  Hon  and  the  mouse 
helped  each  other  and  became  friends.^' 

Summary.— A  clause  is  any  combination  of  subject  and 
predicate. 

An  independent  clause  is  one  that  can  stand  alone  and 
make  sense. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  independent  clause. 

A  simple  sentence  may  have  a  compound  subject  or  a 
compound  predicate,  or  both. 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  simple  sentences:  — 

Model.  —  Then  a  piece  of  mica,  or  a  little  pool,  or  even  a 
highly  polished  leaf  will  flash  like  a  heliograph. 

This  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  a  piece  of  mica,  or  a  little  pool,  or  even  a 
highly  polished  leaf.  The  predicate  is  will  flash  like  a  helio- 
graph then. 

The  subject  is  compound.  The  simple  subjects  are  the 
nouns  piece,  pool,  and  fea/,  which  are  joined  by  the  conjunc- 
tion or.  Piece  is  modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase  of 
mica  and  the  adjective  a.  Pool,  is  modified  by  the  adjectives 
little  and  a.     Leaf  is  modified  by  the  adjective  element 


SIMPLE  SENTENCES  49 

highly  polished^  and  the  adjectives  a  and  even.  The  base 
word  of  the  adjective  element  is  the  adjective  polished ^  which 
is  modified  by  the  adverb  highly. 

The  simple  predicate  is  will  flash.  It  is  modified  by  the 
prepositional  phrase  like  a  heliograph,  and  the  adverb  then. 

1.  Through  three  good  months  the  valley  was  wrapped  in  cloud 
and  soaking  mist. 

2.  In  the  very  heart  of  London  stands  the  great  Bank  of  Eng- 
land. 

3.  Would  not  any  boy  respond  to  the  sweet  invitation  of  those 
ripe  berries  ? 

4.  A  fool  and  his  money  are  soon  parted. 

5.  A  large,  warm  tear  splashed  down  on  the  program. 

6.  In  the  sunny  days  the  sucker  lies  in  the  deep  pools,  by  some 
big  stone  or  near  the  bank. 

7.  The  feeling  of  a  boy  towards  pumpkin  pie  has  never  been 
properly  considered. 

8.  Shall  the  adventures  of  the  Peterkin  family  be  published  ? 

9.  No  healthy  boy  could  long  exist  without  numerous  friends  in 
the  animal  kingdom. 

10.  No  sound  of  joy  or  sorrow  was  heard  from  either  bank. 

11.  At  length  has  come  the  bridal  day  of  beauty  and  of  strength. 

12.  On  one  hot  summer  morning  a  little  cloud  rose  from  the  sea 
and  floated  lightly  and  happily  across  the  blue  sky. 

13.  Donkeys,  horses,  negroes  of  every  age,  size,  and  shade,  carts, 
crates,  sacks,  barrels,  and  boxes  are  mingled  in  seemingly  inextric- 
able confusion. 

14.  In  the  midst  of  the  wild  confusion  the  voice  of  the  Boots 
was  heard. 

15.  Then  he  strolled  across  the  pasture,  between  the  black 
stumps,  the  blueberry  patches,  the  tangles  of  wild  raspberry; 
pushed  softly  through  the  fringe  of  wild  cherry  and  young  birch 
saplings,  and  crept  silently  under  the  branches  of  a  low  hemlock. 

16.  The  moss  was  supported  by  solid  earth  or  a  framework 
of  ancient  tree  roots. 

17.  Alas !  with  every  blow  of  the  chisel  the  brick  crumbled  at 
my  feet. 

18.  A  dish  of  apples  and  a  pitcher  of  chilly  cider  were  always 
served  during  the  evening. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  4 


50  COMPOUND   SENTENCES 

19.  I  sat  down  in  the  middle  of  the  path  and  never  stirred  for  a 
long  time. 

20.  The  mayor  and  other  civic  authorities  in  London  came  down 
to  Greenwich  in  barges. 

XIX.     COMPOUND   SENTENCES 

63.  We  have  seen  that  sentences  may  be  joined  together 
by  conjunctions.  When  two  or  more  independent  clauses 
are  joined  together  in  this  way,  we  say  that  the  sentence  is 
compound;  as,  ^'  Coral  reefs  resemble  great  rock  ledges,  and 
vessels  are  often  wrecked  upon  them.'^ 

64.  The  conjunctions  most  used  in  compound  sentences 
are  and,  or,  but,  yet,  therefore,  and  so. 

And  shows  that  two  clauses  are  in  the  same  line  of  thought; 
as,  ^'  His  eye  was  bright,  and  his  face  was  ruddy." 

Or  shows  a  choice  between  two  clauses ;  as,  ^'  You  must 
work,  or  you  must  go  hungry.'^ 

But  and  yet  show  a  contrast;  as,  '^  I  mailed  the  letter,  but 
Uncle  Joe  never  received  it." 

Therefore  and  so  show  that  the  second  clause  is  a  conse- 
quence of  the  first;  as,  ''  There  are  fires  in  the  forests  north 
of  us,  therefore  the  air  is  full  of  smoke." 

65.  Sometimes  when  the  relation  between  clauses  is 
perfectly  evident,  the  conjunction  is  omitted;  as,  "I  came; 
I  saw;   I  conquered." 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  have  no  doubt  as  to  where  a 
clause  ends,  it  is  usually  followed  by  a  comma,  which  speaks 
to  the  eye  of  the  reader  just  as  a  pause  speaks  to  the  ear  of 
the  listener.  When  the  clauses  are  long  or  the  conjunction 
is  omitted,  a  semicolon  may  be  used  instead  of  the  comma. 

Summary.  —  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
independent  clauses. 

The  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  comma  or  a  semicolon. 


COMPOUND  SENTENCES  51 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  clauses  in  the  following  com- 
pound sentences.  Tell  the  relation  between  them,  and  how 
they  are  joined.  Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each 
clause.     Account  for  the  punctuation. 

1.  Over  the  porch  grew  a  hop-vine,  and  a  brandy-cherry  tree 
shaded  the  door,  and  a  luxuriant  cranberry  vine  flung  its  delicious 
fruit  across  the  window. 

2.  Mr.  Peterkin  liked  to  take  a  doze  on  his  sofa  in  the  room,  but 
the  rest  of  the  family  liked  to  sit  on  the  piazza. 

3.  Prosperity  makes  friends  ;   adversity  tries  them. 

4.  The  whole  family  planted  the  potatoes;  George  dug  the 
holes  with  his  hoe,  MoUie  dropped  into  each  one  three  pieces  of  an 
old  potato,  Paul  raked  the  black  earth  over  them,  and  Mother 
supervised  and  praised  them  all. 

5.  Some  of  the  letter-carriers  must  take  very  long  walks,  but 
English  people  do  not  appear  to  object  to  that  sort  of  thing. 

6.  Oh,  come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come  ye  in  war  ? 

7.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  young  lions  shed  their  teeth, 
the  first  indications  of  manes  appeared  on  the  males,  and  the 
playfulness  between  brother  and  sister  ceased. 

8.  The  clumsy  wheels  of  several  old-fashioned  coaches  were 
heard,  and  the  gentlemen  and  ladies  composing  the  bridal  party 
came  through  the  church  with  the  sudden  and  gladsome  effect  of 
a  burst  of  sunshine. 

9.  I  had  never  been  called  pretty  before,  so  I  was  flattered. 

10.  The  yellow  cur  has  not  the  speed  of  the  greyhound,  but 
neither  does  he  bear  the  seeds  of  lung  and  skin  diseases. 

11.  The  party  did  not  return  to  Skarpsno  until  half -past  eight 
in  the  evening,  yet  the  sun  was  still  above  the  horizon.  ! 

12.  We  cherish  every  memorial  of  our  worthy  ancestors ;  we  cele--' 
brate  their  patience  and  fortitude ;  we  admire  their  daring  enter- 
prise ;  we  teach  our  children  to  venerate  their  piety. 

13.  Every  animal  has  some  great  strength,  or  it  could  not  live ; 
every  animal  has  some  great  weakness,  or  the  other  animals  could 
not  live. 

14.  Human  action  can  be  modified  to  some  extent,  but  human 
nature  cannot  be  changed. 

15.  Captain  John  Smith  was  exasperatingly  sure  of  himself,  and 
older  men  found  his  pretensions  well-nigh  unbearable. 


52  DEPENDENT  CLAUSES 

XX.     DEPENDENT    CLAUSES.     COMPLEX 
SENTENCES 

66.  We  have  seen  that  in  both  simple  and  compound 
sentences  the  clauses  are  independent.  There  is  a  third 
class  of  sentences,  however,  containing  dependent  clauses. 

In  the  simple  sentence,  ^^  At  night  his  antelope  skin  was 
spread  on  the  ground,''  the  prepositional  phrase  on  the  ground 
tells  place,  and  modifies  the  verb  was  spread. 

In  the  sentence,  ^'  At  night  his  antelope  skin  was  spread 
where  the  darkness  overtook  him,''  the  group  of  words 
where  the  darkness  overtook  him  has  the  same  use  as  the  phrase 
on  the  ground,  for  it  tells  place  and  modifies  the  verb  was 
spread. 

But  this  group  of  words  contains  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate; hence  it  is  a  clause.  It  could  not  stand  alone  and 
make  sense;  hence  it  cannot  be  an  independent  clause.  It 
could  not  be  in  the  sentence  at  all  unless  the  verb  was  spread 
were  there  too  for  it  to  modify.  It  is  therefore  dependent 
on  the  verb,  and  so  we  call  it  a  dependent  clause.  It  has 
the  same  use  as  an  adverb,  because  it  modifies  a  verb.  We 
find  many  dependent  clauses  used  in  this  way,  because  our 
language  does  not  afford  enough  adverbs  or  even  preposi- 
tional phrases  to  express  our  meaning. 

67.  When  dependent  clauses  modify  verbs,  they  answer 
such  questions  as  these,  —  was  spread  where?  was  spread 
why?  how?  when?  under  what  condition?  for  what  purpose? 

68.  In  the  sentence,  ''  They  went  into  a  small  parlor, 
which  smelt  very  spicy,"  the  parlor  is  described  by  the 
adjective  small  and  by  the  group  of  words  which  smelt  very 
spicy.  What  is  this  group  of  words?  How  do  we  know? 
What  words  does  it  modify  ?  What,  then,  is  the  use  of  some 
dependent  clauses  ?  When  dependent  clauses  modify  nouns, 
they  point  out  or  describe  objects  just  as  adjectives  do. 


COMPLEX  SENTENCES  53 

69.  In  the  sentences  that  we  have  just  been  studying  there 
is  an  independent  clause  as  well  as  a  dependent  clause.  A 
sentence  of  this  kind  is  called  a  complex  sentence. 

A  complex  sentence  may  contain  any  number  of  depend- 
ent clauses,  but  only  one  independent  clause,  for  as  soon  as  a 
sentence  contains  two  independent  clauses  it  becomes  a 
compound  sentence. 

Summary.  —  A  dependent  clause  is  one  that  is  used  like- 
a  part  of  speech  and  does  not  make  sense  when  it  stands 
alone. 

A  dependent  clause  may  be  used  like  an  adjective  to 
modify  a  noun,  or  like  an  adverb  to  modify  a  verb. 

A  complex  sentence  consists  of  one  independent  clause  and 
one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  clauses  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  classify  them.  Tell  what  the  dependent  clauses 
modify.     Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each  clause. 

Note.  —  Frequently  a  dependent  clause  modifies  more  than  the 
verb.  In  the  sentence,  *'The  little  boys  wanted  a  house  with  a  great 
many  doors,  so  that  they  could  go  in  and  out  often,"  the  dependent 
clause  so  that  they  could  go  in  and  out  often  tells  the  pinpose  of  their 
wanting  a  house  with  a  great  many  doors  ;  hence,  it  modifies  not 
merely  the  verb  wanted ^  but  the  whole  predicate  wanted  a  house  with 
a  great  many  doors.  Try  to  tell  the  exact  truth  about  each  sentence 
that  you  study. 

1.  He  was  always  catching  sculpins  when  every  one  else  with 
the  same  bait  was  catching  mackerel. 

2.  If  we  cross  the  Atlantic  by  one  of  the  fast  steamships,  we  shall 
make  the  voyage  in  about  a  week. 

S.  The  Rotterdam  quays,  which  stretch  for  more  than  a  mile 
along  the  river,  are  busy  and  lively  places. 

4.  Every  Sunday  morning  the  wash  boiler  was  filled  with  water, 
and  the  largest  tab  was  set  in  the  middle  of  the  kitchen  floor,  so  that 
the  three  children  might  have  their  weekly  scrubbing. 

5.  People  who  devote  themselves  too  severely  to  study  of  the 
classics  are  apt  to  become  dried  up. 


54  COMPLEX  SENTENCES 

6.  He  charged  upon  the  rows  of  the  mullein  stalks  as  if  they 
were  rebels  in  regimental  ranks,  and  hewed  them  down  without 
mercy. 

7.  Every  boy  who  is  good  for  anything  is  a  natural  savage. 

8.  Rude  soldiers  now  eat,  drink,  and  sleep,  where  popes  and 
cardinals  once  moved  about  in  state. 

9.  Mowgli,  who  had  never  known  the  meaning  of  real  hunger, 
fell  back  on  stale  honey  three  years  old. 

10.  Iron-clads  are  so  called  because  their  sides  are  covered  with 
thick  plates  of  iron  or  steel,  capable  of  resisting  very  heavy  shot. 

11.  Although  many  people  ascend  Mont  Blanc  every  year,  the 
undertaking  requires  a  great  deal  of  muscular  as  well  as  nervous 
strength. 

12.  If  a  boy  repeats  Thanatopsis  while  he  is  milking,  that  opera- 
tion acquires  a  certain  dignity. 

13.  The  thrill  that  ran  into  my  fingers'  ends  then  has  not  run. 
out  yet. 

14.  Even  a  dog,  who  is  very  far  removed  from  the  wild  wolf, 
his  ancestor,  can  be  waked  out  of  deep  sleep  by  a  cart  wheel  touching 
his  flank,  and  can  spring  away  unharmed  before  that  wheel  comes 
on. 

15.  The  boys  slipped  off  down  the  roadside  to  a  place  where 
they  could  dig  sassafras  or  the  root  of  the  sweet  flag. 

16.  The  little  company  of  Englishmen  who,  in  1620,  exchanged 
Holland  for  America  were  not  soldiers  and  traders  like  the  men  who 
had  led  and  established  the  colony  at  Jamestown. 

17.  Miles  Standish  came  with  the  Pilgrims  to  America  because 
he  liked  both  them  and  their  enterprise. 

18.  The  early  settlers  went  to  church  in  military  array  and  laid 
their  arms  down  close  by  them  while  they  worshiped  and  heard 
the  sermon. 

19.  The  colonists  chose  for  their  place  of  settlement  a  high  bluff,  • 
which  rose  upon  the  eastern  bank  of  a  little  stream. 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  always,  sentence  1, 
Sunday  4,  too  and  severely  5,  now,  once,  and  about  8. 

Analyze  the  predicate  was  set  in  the  middle  of  the  kitchen 
floor. 

What  is  the  grammatical  use  of  the  group  of  words  as  well 
as  in  sentence  11? 


REVIEW:    CLASSIFICATION   OF  SENTENCES       55 

XXI.     REVIEW:    CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES 

70.  We  have  seen  that  sentences  are  classified  according 
to  purpose,  as  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  ex- 
clamatory. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  states,  or  declares, 
something. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  asks  a  question. 

An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  command 
or  an  entreaty. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  sudden  or 
strong  feeling. 

71.  We  have  seen  also  that  sentences  may  consist  of  one 
clause  or  of  several,  and  that  clauses  may  be  independent 
or  dependent.  Sentences  are  therefore  classified  according 
to  structure,  as  simple,  compound,  or  complex. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  but  one  independ- 
ent clause. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  that  contains  two  or  more 
independent  clauses. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  that  contains  one  independent 
clause  and  one  or  more  .dependent  clauses. 

Exercise  1.  —  Write  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  a  com- 
pound interrogative  sentence,  a  complex  imperative  sentence, 
and  a  simple  exclamatory  sentence. 

Exercise  2.  —  Classify  the  following  sentences  according  to 
both  purpose  and  structure.  Give  the  reasons  for  your 
classification.  Tell  what  the  dependent  clauses  modify. 
Tell  also  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each  clause. 

1.  The  oxen  sagged  along  in  their  great  clumsy  way. 

2.  Give  me  quickly  my  seven-league  boots,  that  I  may  go  after 
those  boys  and  catch  them. 

3.  How  sweet  and  demure  the  girls  looked  I 


56       REVIEW:   CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES 

4.  Within  sight  of  that  tall  elm  tree  were  passed  my  happiest 
years. 

5.  Did  you  ever  know  a  child  who  was  not  interested  in  animals  ? 

6.  My  grandfather  never  skipped  over  an  advertisement,  even 
if  he  had  read  it  fifty  times  before. 

7.  ^      Woodman,  spare  that  tree  I 

Touch  not  a  single  bough  ! 

8.  Must  I  keep  order  along  the  whole  line  ? 

9.  All  the  trees  and  the  bushes  and  the  bamboos  and  the  mosses 
and  the  juicy-leaved  plants  wake  with  a  noise  of  growing  that  you- 
tjan  almost  hear. 

10.  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood, 
When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view ! 

11.  Sometimes  it  is  impolite  to  tell  the  truth,  and  then  one  can 
only  say  nothing  or  talk  of  the  weather. 

12.  Toll  ye  the  church  bell  sad  and  slow. 

13.  Some  boys  go  scowling  always  through  life,  as  if  they  had  a 
stone  bruise  on  each  heel. 

14.  Proud  bird  of  the  mountain,  thy  plume  shall  be  torn  I 

15.  Mowgli  had  the  good  conscience  that  comes  from  paying 
debts. 

16.  Cease  to  do  evil ;  learn  to  do  well. 

17.  The  first  was  a  brass  band,  the  second  was  a  string  band, 
the  third  was  a  rubber  band,  and  the  fourth  was  a  man  who  played 
on  the  jew's-harp. 

18.  Lo,  all  our  pomp  of  yesterday 
Is  one  with  Nineveh  and  Tyre  I 

19.  On  Sunday  the  hens  went  silently  about,  and  the  roosters 
crowed  in  psalm  tunes. 

20.  Up  !  up  !  my  friend,  and  quit  your  books, 
Or  surely  you'll  grow  double  ! 

21.  Is  the  world  growing  better  or  are  we  moving  in  a  circle? 

22.  Remember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth. 

23.  When  a  man  has  heard  the  great  things  calling  to  him,  how 
they  call  and  call,  day  and  night ! 

24.  O  ye  who  have  young  children,  if  it  is  possible,  give  them 
happy  memories. 

Find  an  interjection  in  this  exercise. 

What  independent  elements  do  you  find  in  sentences  7, 14, 
and  24  ?    What  is  the  base  word  of  each  ? 


REVIEW:   PARTS   OF  SPEECH  57 

XXII.     REVIEW:    PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

72.  We  have  seen  that  words  are  classified  according  to 
their  use  into  eight  parts  of  speech,  —  nouns,  verbs,  pro- 
nouns, adjectives,  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and 
interjections. 

A  noun  is  a  name  word. 

A  verb  is  an  asserting  word. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  point  out  or  describe  an 
object  and  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  that  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  that  is  used  with  its  object  to  form 
a  phrase,  and  shows  the  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word  the 
phrase  modifies. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  that  joins  sentences  or  parts  of 
sentences. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  sudden  or  strong 
feeling. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  what  part  of  speech  each  word  is  in  the 
following  sentences.     Tell  in  each  case  how  you  know. 

1.  Toto's  good  grandmother  bore  this  commotion  quietly  for 
some  time. 

2.  "Now,  set  those  baskets  down.'*     He  spoke  sharply. 

3.  Mowgli  knew  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  villagers  very 
fairly. 

4.  No  other  mother  ever  made  such  deep,  smooth,  golden  cus- 
tard pies,  or  fried  such  light  and  spicy  doughnuts. 

5.  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  are  strongly  asso- 
ciated together  in  the  minds  of  all  readers  of  English  history. 

6.  The  tamest  tiger  is  a  tiger  still. 

7.  The  negro  cleared  for  us  a  path  to  an  enormously  tall  tree. 

8.  Nobody  scolded  me  or  laughed  at  me. 

9.  Then  my  eyes  came  back  to  the  wall  paper,  and  I  studied 
out  figures  in  its  spreading  vines. 


58  REVIEW:    PARTS   OF  SPEECH 

10.  Perhaps  a  little  starch  would  have  some  effect. 

11.  The  roaring  hot  wind  of  the  Jungle  came  and  went  between 
the  rocks  and  the  rattling  branches. 

12.  Ring-ting  !     I  wish  I  were  a  primrose. 

13.  O  love,  they  die  in  yon  rich  sky. 

73.  In  sentence  13  in  the  preceding  exercise,  it  is  evident 
that  the  word  love^  which  is  often  a  verb,  is  used  as  a  term  of 
address,  and  therefore  is  a  noun.  Many  words  may  be  used 
as  verbs  or  as  nouns. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  what  part  of  speech  the  itaHcized  words 
are  in  the  following  sentences.  Give  your  reason  in  each 
case. 

1.  Don't  scour  your  porcelain  sink  with  sapolio. 

2.  When  bodies  sink  in  Lake  Superior,  they  never  rise. 

3.  Oh,  what  a/aW  was  there,  my  countrymen. 

4.  We  fall  to  rise,  are  baffled  to  fight  better. 

5.  Alice  gave  the  branch  a  vigorous  shake. 

6.  Nay,  do  not  shake  your  gory  locks  at  me. 

7.  Will  you  show  me  your  lineage  book  ? 

8.  There  are  ten  thousand  moving  picture  shows  in  the  United 
States. 

9.  What  a  good  catch  our  right  fielder  made. 
10.   Did  you  catch  this  sturgeon  last  night  ? 

Make  sentences  in  which  the  following  words  shall  be 
used  as  nouns  and  as  verbs:  fight,  pay,  rap,  shed,  shoe, 
sting,  tread, 

74.  Many  words  that  are  usually  adjectives  may  also  be 
used  as  nouns.     Such  words  fall  into  different  classes:  — 

(1)  Adjectives  denoting  color;  as,  black,  white,  red.  We 
may  say,  '*  The  blacks  were  once  slaves  of  the  whites.'^  We 
may  also  say,  '^  Red  and  green  are  complementary  colors.'' 

(2)  Certain  adjectives  denoting  qualities  of  persons,  which 
may  also  be  used  to  name  classes  of  persons  having  those 
qualities;  as,  rich,  poor,  old,  young,  had,  good.  We  say,  '^  The 
rich  should  not  scorn  the  poor,''  ^'  The  good  die  young." 


REVIEW:   PARTS   OF  SPEECH  59 

(3)  Certain  adjectives  denoting  qualities,  which  may  also 
be  used  to  name  classes  of  things  having  those  qualities; 
as,  good  J  evil,  true,  false.  We  say,  ^^  Love  the  good,  cherish 
the  true,  admire  the  beautiful/' 

(4)  Certain  other  adjectives,  such  as  native ,  secret,  fat, 
lean,  thick.  We  say,  ''The  natives  had  no  secrets,"  ''Jack 
Sprat  would  eat  no  fat,''  "  He  was  always  in  the  thick  of 
the  fight." 

Exercise.  —  Make  sentences  containing  the  following 
words  used  as  adjectives  and  as  nouns:  purple,  blue,  brave, 
righteous,  evil,  wet,  cold,  sweet,  right,  wrong,  solid,  strong. 

75.  Some  words  may  be  used  both  as  adjectives  and  as 
adverbs.  When  well  means  the  opposite  of  sick,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "  Grace  never  was  a  well  child,"  it  is  an  adjective. 
When  well  means  in  a  good  manner,  as  in  the  sentence, 
*'  Esther  sings  well,"  it  is  an  adverb. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  what  part  of  speech  the  italicized  words 
are  in  the  following  sentences.  Give  your  reason  in  each 
case. 

1.  The  paper  is  large  enough,  but  I  have  not  enough  string. 

2.  As  she  came  near  I  recognized  one  of  my  near  neighbors, 

3.  All  flesh  is  grass. 

4.  The  girls  playing  basket  ball  are  all  tired  out. 

5.  The  doctor  liked  a  fast  horse. 

6.  We  must  walk  fast  this  cold  morning. 

7.  Nobody  could  play  golf  worse  than  I. 

8.  May  I  never  do  a  worse  deed  ! 

9.  Have  you  any  ribbon  to  match  this  sample? 

10.  Will  this  color  do  any  better? 

11.  Somebody  else  will  marry  her  then. 

12.  How  else  could  I  get  there  in  time  ? 

Make  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used  as 
adjectives  and  as  adverbs:  high,  last,  long,  low,  much,  round, 
slow,  straight. 


60  TRANSITIVE  VERBS 

76.  Some  words  may  be  used  both  as  adverbs  and  as 
prepositions.  In  the  sentence,  "  I  looked  in  as  I  went  by/' 
both  in  and  by  are  adverbs.  How  do  we  know  this  ?  In 
the  sentence,  "  As  I  went  by  the  house,  I  looked  in  the 
window,'^  both  in  and  by  are  prepositions.  What  are  their 
objects?     What  do  the  phrases  modify? 

Exercise.  — ■  What  part  of  speech  are  the  italicized  words 
in  the  following  sentences  ?     Give  your  reason  in  each  case. 

1.  Beyond  lay  the  city  of  their  dreams. 

2.  Our  house  stands  beyond  the  church. 

3.  Over  the  Alps  lies  Italy. 

4.  Come  over  this  evening  if  you  can. 

5.  She  fainted  and  did  not  come  to  for  an  hour. 

6.  The  granary  is  behind  the  barn. 

7.  Ichabod  looked  behind  for  an  instant. 

8.  A  storm  of  sleet  was  raging  without. 

9.  Civilized  man  cannot  do  without  cooks. 

Make  sentences  in  which  the  following  words  are  used 
both  as  adverbs  and  as  prepositions :  aboutj  above,  along, 
down,  off,  on,  through,  under,  up,  within. 


XXIII.     TRANSITIVE   VERBS.      OBJECT   OF   VERB 

77.  We  have  seen  that  a  noun  may  be  related  to  a  verb 
as  its  subject.  When  the  verb  asserts  action,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "  Many  birds  eat  flies,''  then  the  subject  many 
birds  names  the  doer,  or  performer,  of  the  action. 

There  is  another  very  common  relation  that  a  noun  may 
bear  to  a  verb.  In  the  sentence  above,  the  verb  eat  asserts 
an  action  that  is  not  only  performed  by  something,  but  is 
also  performed  upon  something.  That  is,  there  is  a  doer  of 
the  action,  many  birds,  and  a  receiver  of  the  action,  flies. 
If  we  had  merely  the  subject  and  the  verb,  our  sentence 
would  be  incomplete,  and  we  should  ask  at  once,  eat  what? 


OBJECT  OF  VERB  61 

Since  the  word  flies  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
eatj  we  call  it  the  complement  of  the  verb.  Since  it  names 
the  receiver  of  the  action  that  is  asserted  by  the  verb  eaty 
we  call  it  the  object  or  direct  object  of  the  verb. 

78.  Not  all  verbs  require  an  object  —  only  those  which 
assert  action  which  the  subject  performs  upon  some  person 
or  thing.     Such  verbs  are  called  transitive  verbs. 

79.  The  object  of  a  verb  is  not  always  a  single  word.  The 
object  may  be  compound,  as  in  the  sentence,  ^^  Many  birds 
eat  flies  and  gnats  and  mosquitoes.''  Again,  the  object  may 
be  a  group  of  words,  of  which  a  noun  is  the  base  word. 
In  the  following  sentence  there  are  three  transitive  verbs. 
What  is  the  object  of  each  verb  ?  What  is  the  base  word  of 
each  object? — ^^Miss  Dorothea  dusted  the  banisters  round 
the  porch,  straightened  the  rows  of  shoes  in  mother's  closet^ 
and  folded  the  daily  papers  in  the  rack." 

80.  Just  as  we  can  find  the  subject  of  a  verb  by  asking 
the  question  made  by  placing  who  or  what  before  the  verb, 
so  we  can  find  the  object  of  a  verb  that  asserts  action  by 
asking  the  question  made  by  placing  whom  or  what  after  the 
verb. 

These  questions  are  often  a  great  help,  especially  if  a  sen- 
tence is  long  or  transposed.  In  the  sentence,  ^'  A  more 
miserable  little  beast  I  had  never  seen,"  what  is  the  verb? 
Ask  a  question  to  find  the  subject.  Ask  a  question  to  find 
the  object. 

Summary.  —  A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  asserts  action 
performed  upon  some  person  or  thing. 

A  complement  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  used  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  a  verb. 

The  direct  object  of  a  verb  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words 
that  completes  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb  and  nameg^ 
the   receiver   of  the   action. 


62  TRANSITIVE  VERBS 

Note.  —  Not  all  transitive  verbs  denote  action  that  is  accom- 
panied by  motion.  Some  denote  action  of  the  senses ;  as,  "I  see 
the  star,"  "  I  taste  the  pepper."  Others  denote  action  of  the  feel- 
ings; as,  "  I  Zoi;e  the  truth,"  "I  hate  a  lie."  Still  others  do  not  de- 
note action  at  all ;  as,  "  I  mean  you,"  "  Our  forefathers  owned  slaves," 
"  I  kept  her  letter."  We  must  enlarge  our  notion  of  transitive  verbs 
so  as  to  make  it  include  all  verbs  that  take  a  complement  which  de- 
notes a  different  person  or  thing  from  the  subject. 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  transitive  verbs  in  these  sen- 
tences. Find  both  their  subjects  and  their  objects  by  ask- 
ing the  proper  questions. 

Note. — A  transitive  verb  may  be  modified  before  it  is  completed. 
This  is  true  of  lifts  in  sentence  2.  Oftener  the  idea  expressed  by 
the  verb  and  its  object  together  is  modified  ;  as  in  sentence  1,  where 
the  phrase  in  despair  modifies  not  shook  but  shook  her  head, 

1.  Dotty  Dimple  shook  her  head  in  despair. 

2.  At  the  word  of  command,  the  two  horsemen  stop,  each  man 
lifts  up  his  right  leg,  throws  it  over  the  back  of  his  horse,  and  drops 
it  to  the  ground  so  that  the  two  boots  tap  the  pavement  at  the  same 
instant. 

3.  Her  father  found  a  pleasant  seat  on  the  shady  side,  hung 
the  basket  in  a  rack,  and  opened  a  window. 

4.  When  the  young  surveyor  left  Detroit,  he  carried  a  huge  green 
bandbox,  and  his  wife  in  her  far  frontier  home  received  in  due  time 
a  beautiful  blue  bonnet. 

5.  I  threw  off  an  overcoat,  took  an  armchair  by  the  crackling 
logs,  and  awaited  patiently  the  arrival  of  my  hosts. 

6.  All  the  world  likes  molasses  candy. 

7.  The  children  brought  home  great  bunches  of  the  brilliant 
leaves,  and  some  they  pressed  and  varnished,  while  others  Katherine 
dipped  in  melted  wax. 

8.  John  trod  down  the  exquisite  ferns  and  the  wonderful  mosses 
without  compunction.  But  he  gathered  from  the  crevices  of  the 
rocks  the  columbine  and  the  eglantine  and  the  blue  harebell;  he 
picked  the  high-flavored  alpine  strawberry,  the  blueberry,  the  box- 
berry,  wild  currants  and  gooseberries  and  fox  grapes ;  he  brought 
home  armfuls  of  the  pink  and  white  laurel  and  the  wild  honey- 
suckle ;  he  dug  the  roots  of  the  fragrant  sassafras  and  of  the  sweet 
flag ;  he  ate  the  tender  leaves  of  the  wintergreen  and  its  red  berries  ; 


OBJECT  OF  VERB  63 

he  gathered  the  peppermint  and  the  spearmint ;  he  gnawed  the 
twigs  of  the  black  birch;  he  dug  the  amber  gum  from  the  spruce- 
tree  ;  he  brought  home  such  medicinal  herbs  for  the  garret  as  the 
goldthread,  the  tansy,  and  the  loathsome  "  boneset,"  and  he  laid 
in  for  the  winter,  like  a  squirrel,  stores  of  beechnuts,  hazelnuts, 
hickorynuts,  chestnuts,  and  butternuts. 

Exercise  2.  — Analyze  the  following  sentences:  — 

Note.  —  If  any  part  of  a  sentence  is  compound,  state  that 
fact  before  analyzing  it.  If  the  subject  or  object  is  compound, 
give  the  base  words  first,  and  then  the  modifiers  of  each.  If  the 
predicate  is  compound,  analyze  the  first  predicate  completely,  then 
the  second,  and  so  on.  If  any  adverb  or  prepositional  phrase 
modifies  the  idea  denoted  by  the  verb  and  the  object,  be  sure  to  say 
so  in  your  analysis.  For  instance,  in  the  sentence,  "We  have  seen 
his  star  in  the  east,"  the  predicate  verb  is  have  seen.  It  is  com- 
pleted by  the  direct  object  his  star,  and  then  modified  by  the  prep- 
ositional phrase  in  the  east. 

1.  Sometimes  a  perfume  like  absinthe  sweetened  all  the  air. 

2.  The  little  brown  field  mouse  ran  along  in  the  grass,  poked  his 
nose  into  everything,  and  finally  spied  a  smooth,  shiny  acorn. 

3.  My  son,  descend  those  steps  and  enter  that  door. 

4.  Many  and  many  a  pair  of  mittens  had  those  busy  fingers 
knit. 

5.  Always  within  a  few  moments  the  rabbits  would  resume  their 
leaping  progress  through  the  white  glitter  and  the  hard,  black 
shadows. 

6.  The  visit  of  the  tax  collector  seldom  gives  unmixed  joy. 

7.  Scrooge  took  his  melancholy  dinner  in  his  usual  melancholy- 
tavern.  i 

8.  The  first  glimpse  of  a  new  country  always  quickens  the 
sense  of  the  traveler. 

9.  Rebecca  took  off  her  hat  and  cape  and  hung  them  in  the 
hall,  put  her  rubber  shoes  and  umbrella  carefully  in  the  corner, 
and  then  opened  the  door  of  paradise. 

10.  The  scent  of  herbs  and  the  fragrance  of  fruit  filled  the  great 
unfinished  chamber. 

11.  A  polished  brazen  rod  on  a  broad  wooden  pedestal  beside 
the  armchair  held  half  a  dozen  lamps  of  silver  on  sliding  arms. 

12.  Messala  hugged  the  stony  wall  with  perilous  clasp. 


64         INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  ASSERTING  ACTION 

13.  Amrah  rubbed  her  eyes,  bent  closer  down,  clasped  her  hands, 
gazed  wildly  around,  looked  at  the  sleeper,  then  stooped  and  raised 
his  hand,  and  kissed  it  fondly. 

14.  The  proprietor  of  the  fruit  stand  has  a  bald  head,  a  long  face, 
and  a  nose  like  the  beak  of  a  hawk. 

15.  Without  more  ado  Mr.  Gary  grasped  his  arm  firmly,  and 
fairly  lifted  him  into  the  room. 


XXIV.     INTRANSITIVE    VERBS    ASSERTING    ACTION 

81.  Transitive  verbs,  as  we  have  seen,  assert  action  per- 
formed upon  some  person  or  thing.  There  are  many  other 
verbs  in  our  language  that  assert  action,  but  the  action  is  not 
performed  upon  anything.  On  the  contrary,  the  action  ends 
in  itself;  as  in  the  sentence,  "  The  wind  in  the  chimney  sighed 
and  moaned  and  shivered.^'  Here  the  wind  is  said  to  per- 
form three  actions,  but  these  actions  were  not  received  by 
anything.  Verbs  like  sighed^  moaned^  and  shivered  are  said 
to  be  intransitive  verbs. 

82.  Not  all  intransitive  verbs  assert  action.  The  verb  he 
and  a  few  others  (see  Lesson  XXV)  which  assert  merely 
being,  are  also  intransitive  verbs;  as,  "  I  am  hungry,''  "  You 
are  kind,''  "He  is  extravagant,"  "They  t(;6re  careless." 

83.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  same  verb  may  be 
used  in  one  sentence  as  a  transitive  verb,  and  i^  another  as 
an  intransitive  verb.  If  we  say,  "  The  horse  kicked  his 
master,"  the  verb  kicked  is  transitive.  Why?  If  we  say, 
"  The  poor  boy  kicked  and  squirmed  and  groaned,"  the  verb 
kicked  is  intransitive.     Why  ? 

We  should  always  classify  a  verb  as  it  is  used  in  the  par- 
ticular sentence  under  consideration. 

Summary.  —  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  asserts 
(1)  being,  or  (2)  action  that  is  not  received  by  any  person  or 
thing. 


INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  ASSERTING  ACTION       65 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  verbs  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  classify  them  as  transitive  or  intransitive.  Tell  the 
subject  of  each  verb.    If  the  verb  is  transitive,  tell  its  object. 

1.  The  princess  sat  at  table  next  to  the  king  and  queen. 

2.  At  these  words  a  grave  smile  of  approval  lighted  the  gaunt 
face  of  the  Hindu. 

3.  The  spring  murmured  drowsily  beside  him.  The  branches 
waved  dreamily  across  the  blue  sky  overhead.  A  deep  sleep  fell  upon 
David  Swan. 

4.  While  shepherds  watched  their  flocks  by  night, 

All  seated  on  the  ground, 
An  angel  of  the  Lord  came  down, 
And  glory  shone  around. 

5.  Mr.  Jeremy  stuck  his  pole  into  the  mud,  and  fastened  the 
boat  to  it. 

6.  The  cat  got  up  and  stretched  herself,  and  came  and  sniffed 
at  the  basket. 

7.  I  would  have  spared  the  woman  who  gave  thee  the  milk. 

8.  His  hair  had  fallen  about  his  shoulders. 

9.  They  sang  patriotic  songs,  they  told  stories,  they  fired  tor- 
pedoes, they  frightened  the  cats. 

10.  I  could  have  killed  a  buck  while  thou  wast  striking. 

11.  Away  rolled  the  bogghun,  away  and  away,  over  the  meadows 
and  into  the  forest ;  away  and  away  bounded  the  Princess  in  pursuit. 
The  golden  nose  ring  flashed  and  glittered  in  the  sunlight,  the  golden 
bangles  on  her  wrists  and  ankles  tinkled  and  rang  their  tiny  bells 
as  she  went.  The  monkeys  swinging  by  their  tails  from  the 
branches,  chattered  with  astonishment  at  us;  the  wild  parrot 
screamed  at  us ;  all  the  birds  sang  and  chirped  and  twittered. 

12.  The  chipmunk  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  his  den,  looked 
quickly  about,  took  a  few  leaps  to  a  tussock  of  grass,  paused  a 
breath  with  one  foot  raised,  slipped  quickly  a  few  yards  over  some 
dry  leaves,  paused  again  by  a  stump  beside  a  path,  rushed  across 
the  path  to  the  pile  of  loose  stones,  went  under  the  first  and  over  the 
second,  gained  the  pile  of  posts,  made  his  way  through  that,  sur- 
veyed his  course  a  half  moment  from  the  other  side  of  it,  and  then 
darted  on  to  some  other  cover,  and  presently  beyond  my  range, 
where  he  must  have  gathered  acorns,  for  no  other  nut-bearing  trees 
than  oaks  grew  near. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram,  —  5 


66         INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  ASSERTING  BEING 

Exercise  2.  —  Tell  whether  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  are  transitive  or  intransitive.  Give  your 
reason  in  each  case.  If  a  verb  is  transitive,  tell  how  it  is 
completed.     If  it  is  intransitive,  tell  how  it  is  modified. 

1.  All  the  brooks  have  hurst  their  icy  chains. 

2.  The  boiler  hurst  with  a  tremendous  noise. 

3.  Do  your  duty ;  that  is  best. 

4.  Such  language  will  never  do  for  a  teacher. 

5.  Miss  Clarissa  draws  and  paints  very  well. 

6.  Giotto  drew  a  perfect  circle  with  one  sweep  of  his  arm. 

7.  The  swallow  flies  with  a  graceful  dipping  motion. 

8.  The  boys  are  flying  their  kites  on  the  common. 

9.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

10.  The  rope  was  stretched  so  tightly  that  it  did  not  give  with 
his  weight. 

11.  All  day  he  sits  in  his  arm  chair  and  reads. 

12.  Have  you  read  *'The  Man  without  a  Country"  ? 

13.  The  woodworkers  have  struck  for  shorter  hours. 

14.  David  struck  Uriah  Heep  on  the  cheek. 

15.  Aunt  Betsy  swept  down  upon  the  trespassers. 

16.  I  must  sweep  the  spiders  off  the  porch. 

XXV.       INTRANSITIVE     VERBS    ASSERTING    BEING. 
NOUNS   AS    SUBJECTIVE    COMPLEMENTS 

84.  There  is  no  other  verb  used  oftener  than  the  verb  be, 
with  its  various  forms,  —  is,  are,  am,  was,  will  he,  has  been, 
etc.  In  the  sentence,  '^  The  lake  is  the  mother  of  the  great 
rivers,"  there  would  be  no  assertion  without  the  verb  is,  and 

/  yet  it  does  not  assert  action  of  any  sort.  The  sentence  plainly 
means  that  the  lake  and  the  mother  of  the  great  rivers  are 
identical ;  that  is,  they  are  one  and  the  same  thing.  The 
verb  is  enables  us  to  assert  identity.  A  verb  of  this  kind  is 
intransitive.  It  is  often  called  a  verb  of  being,  to  distinguish 
it  from  verbs  that  assert  action. 

85.  Some  other  verbs  of  this  kind  are  seem,  appear,  become, 
grow,  feel,  look,  smell,  taste,  and  sound.     They  are  classed  as 


NOUNS  AS  SUBJECTIVE   COMPLEMENTS  67 

verbs  of  being  because  they  mean  —  to  be  in  appearance,  in 
looks,  in  smell,  in  taste,  etc.,  as,   ''You  appear  ill,^'   '*She 
looks  young,''    ''The  milk  tastes  sour/' 
Verbs  that  assert  being  are  intransitive  verbs. 

86.  Intransitive  verbs  of  being  usually  need  a  comple- 
ment. In  the  sentence,  "  I  am  a  spinner  of  long  yarns,"  if 
we  had  merely  the  subject  and  the  verb,  /  am,  we  should  ask, 
am  what?  The  group  of  words  a  spinner  of  long  yarns  an- 
swers this  question,  and  so  completes  the  predicate.  It  is 
not  an  object  complement,  however,  for  it  cannot  name  the 
receiver  of  an  action  since  the  verb  does  not  assert  action  at 
all.  This  complement  denotes  identity  with  the  subject; 
hence  it  is  called  a  subjective  complement. 

Often  the  subjective  complement  denotes  the  class  to  which 
the  person  or  thing  named  by  the  subject  belongs ;  as,  *'  Corn 
is  a  grain,"   "  My  friend  is  a  farmer." 

87.  The  subject  and  the  object  'complement  denote  two 
different  persons  or  things,  but  the  subject  and  the  subjec- 
tive complement  always  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing. 

88.  The  subjective  complement  is  sometimes  a  single  noun, 
as  in  the  sentence,  "  Stars  are  suns."  When  the  subjective 
complement  is  a  group  of  words,  a  noun  is  usually  the  base 
word;  as,  "  Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time." 

In  sentences  containing  a  subjective  complement,  the  sub- 
ject comes  before  the  verb,  and  the  subjective  complement 
after  the  verb,  unless  the  sentence  is  transposed ;  as,  "  Lords 
of  the  sea  are  we." 

89.  Sometimes,  instead  of  having  a  complement,  a  verb 
of  being  is  modified  by  a  prepositional  phrase,  or  even  by  an 
adverb,  denoting  place ;  as,  "  My  bark  is  on  thq  sea,"  "  Yon- 
der is  my  home." 


68        INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  ASSERTING  BEING 

Summary.  —  Verbs  that  assert  being  or  identity  are  in- 
transitive verbs. 

A  subjective  complement  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  that 
completes  a  verb  and  refers  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as 
the  subject. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  intransitive  verbs  of  being  in 
the  following  sentences.  Find  their  subjects  and  their  com- 
plements, and  the  base  words  of  each.  Analyze  sentences 
1,  3,  4,  5,  7,  9,  14. 

1.  This  palace  was  the  residence  of  the  queen  consort  of  England. 

2.  The  king  was  in  his  counting  house,  counting  out  his  money, 
The  queen  was  in  the  parlor,  eating  bread  and  honey. 

3.  My  name  is  Beautiful  Joe,  and  I  am  a  brown  dog  of  medium 
size. 

4.  Her  worship  of  God  was  unselfish  service,  and  her  prayers 
were  worthy  deeds. 

5.  The  one  great  poem  of  New  England  is  her  Sunday. 

6.  This  guinea  pig's  name  was  Jeff,  and  he  and  I  became  good 
friends. 

7.  Patient  waiters  are  no  losers. 

8.  In  this  fine  open  square  are  magnificent  fountains,  handsome 
statuary  on  tall  pedestals,  and  crowds  of  vehicles  and  foot  passen- 
gers crossing  it  in  every  direction. 

9.  A  jackknife  in  his  expert  hand  was  a  whole  chest  of  tools. 

10.  One  of  the  best  things  in  the  world  to  be  is  a  boy. 

11.  Backbiting  is  the  meanest  kind  of  biting,  not  excepting  the 
bite  of  fleas. 

12.  The  rattle  of  a  bucket  in  a  neighbor's  yard,  no  longer  mixed 
with  other  weekday  noises,  seemed  a  new  sound. 

13.  Little  Boy  Blue,  come  blow  your  horn. 

The  sheep's  in  the  meadow,  the  cow's  in  the  corn. 

14.  I  became  an  enthusiastic  little  cook. 

15.  King  Arthur's  son  was  a  handsome,  polite,  and  brave  knight. 

16.  The  bees  are  abroad  under  the  calling  sky,  and  the  red  of 
apple  buds  becomes  a  sign  in  the  orchards. 

17.  Always  darker  turns  the  growing  hemp  as  it  rushes  upward. 

Account  for  the  punctuation  of  sentences  3,  4,  6,  8,  and  15. 


ADJECTIVES  AS  SUBJECTIVE  COMPLEMENTS     6^ 

XXVI.     ADJECTIVES   AS    SUBJECTIVE    COMPLE- 
MENTS 

90.  In  the  sentences,  (1)  "  The  tomato  is  a  fruit,"  (2) 
"  That  tall  boy  is  the  winner  of  the  race,"  the  base  word  of 
the  subjective  complement  is  a  noun,  because  we  wish  to  as- 
sert (1)  class,  (2)  identity. 

In  the  sentence,  "  The  old  gentleman's  face  was  serene  and 
rosy,"  the  base  words  of  the  subjective  complement  are  the 
two  adjectives  serene  and  rosy,  because  we  wish  to  assert  the 
characteristics,  or  qualities,  of  the  old  gentleman's  face. 

This  is  a  very  common  use  of  the  adjective,  as  seen  in  the 
familiar  sentences,  '^  Grass  is  green,"  "  Honey  is  sweet," 
"  Ice  is  cold." 

91.  The  verbs  of  being  that  were  given  in  Lesson  XXV,  — 
he,  become,  look,  seem,  appear,  feel,  smell,  taste,  sound,  and 
grow,  —  often  take  adjectives  for  subjective  complements ; 
as,  "  My  head  feels  dizzy,"  "  This  sentence  sounds  queer," 
'^  Mary  grew  plump  and  strong." 

In  some  cases  where  the  language  affords  no  adjectives 
that  exactly  express  the  meaning,  we  use  a  prepositional 
phrase  as  subjective  complement ;  as  in  the  common  expres- 
sions, "  The  house  is  onfire,^^ ''  The  girl  is  in  love,^^  "  The  man 
is  in  debt  J  ^  None  of  these  phrases  denote  place,  but  each  of 
them  denotes  a  condition. 

Note.  —  An  adjective  used  as  a  subjective  complement  is  often 
modified  by  a  prepositional  phrase.  If  we  say  "The  bin  is  full/* 
somebody  will  ask  "full  of  what?"  If  we  say  "full  of  apples,"  it 
is  evident  that  the  phrase  of  apples  modifies  full.  We  also  say  glad 
of  it,  tired  of  play,  wild  with  joy,  green  with  envy,  etc.  These  expres- 
sions are  different,  however,  from  what  we  find  in  the  sentence, 
"I  was  tired  in  the  evening,"  where  the  phrase  in  the  evening,  denot- 
ing time,  modifies  not  the  adjective  tired,  but  the  two  words  was 
tired. 


70     ADJECTIVES  AS  SUBJECTIVE  COMPLEMENTS 

Summary.  —  An  adjective,  or  a  group  of  words  of  which 
an  adjective  is  the  base  word,  may  be  the  subjective  com- 
plement of  an  intransitive  verb. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  intransitive  verbs  of  being  in 
the  following  sentences.  Find  their  subjects  and  their  com- 
plements, and  the  base  words  of  each.  Analyze  sentences 
1,  2,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  13,  15. 

1.  The  sting  of  a  bee  is  sometimes  deadly. 

2.  The  woodehuck  looked  sulky,  and  scratched  his  nose  expres- 
sively. 

3.  The  traveler's  limbs  were  numb,  for  the  ride  had  been  long 
and  wearisome. 

4.  She  might  be  poor  in  purse  and  weak  in  body,  this  bravo 
young  mother,  but  she  was  rich  in  hope  and  strong  in  spirit. 

5.  By  the  third  day  I  felt  too  weak  and  sick  to  stir. 

6.  At  these  words  the  king  grew  purple  in  the  face. 

7.  Conrad  will  keep  quiet  over  his  books. 

8.  Mary  was  beautiful,  feminine  in  spirit,  and  lovely.  Eliza-* 
beth  was  talented,  masculine,  and  plain.  Mary  was  artless,  un- 
affected, and  gentle.  Elizabeth  was  heartless,  intriguing,  and  in- 
sincere. 

9.  Your  grandfather  looked  very  funny  in  his  red  nightcap, 
and  without  his  teeth. 

10.  Very  few  poetic  people  are  good  at  arithmetic. 

11.  The  garden  at  the  back  of  the  house  was  sweet  with  the 
scent  of  newly  blossomed  lilacs  and  the  freshness  of  young  grass. 

12.  Snow-white  was  the  foam  that  flashed  upward  underneath 
the  curving  prow. 

^     13.  Is  not  Little  Annie  afraid  of  such  a  tumult  ? 

14.  His  mouth  felt  as  dry  and  stiff  and  hard  as  a  chip. 

15.  The  people  went  nearly  mad  for  joy. 

92.  A  common  error  is  the  misuse  of  an  adverb  for  an  ad- 
jective as  the  subjective  complement  of  a  verb  of  being.  We 
should  say,  "  I  feel  bad,  or  ill,  or  unhappy  "  (not  badly). 

Another  common  error  is  the  misuse  of  an  adjective  for  an 
adverb  as  a  modifier  of  a  verb  of  action.  We  should  say, 
"  The  child  learns  easily  "  (not  easy). 


ADJECTIVES  AS  SUBJECTIVE  COMPLEMENTS     71^ 

If  we  wish  to  tell  a  quality  or  condition  of  the  subject,  we 
should  use  an  adjective ;  as,  '*  The  oak  leaves  turned  brown.'' ^ 
If  we  wish  to  tell  the  manner  of  an  action,  we  should  use  an 
adverb ;  as,  '^  The  leaves  turned  quickly  this  fall." 

Exercise  1.  —  Tell  the  part  of  speech  of  each  italicized 
word  in  these  sentences,  and  justify  its  use. 

1.  Mary  dresses  neatly  and  always  looks  charming. 

2.  The  children  must  keep  quiet  to-night. 

3.  Stand  straight  and  breathe  deeply. 

4.  Look  at  them  kindly  and  speak  gently. 

5.  The  old  bishop  looks  kind  and  gentle, 

6.  This  pie  tastes  very  queer. 

7.  Mother  feels  uneasy  if  we  are  out  late. 

8.  The  boy  seemed  nervous  and  felt  uneasily  of  his  watoh  chain. 

9.  Poor  oil  made  the  lamp  smell  very  disagreeable. 

10.  All  the  doors  stood  open. 

11.  The  air  grew  cold  steadily. 

12.  Keep  the  box  carefully  till  I  return. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  the  right  word  for  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each  case :  — 

1.  The  light  is  so  poor  that  I  cannot  see  the  picture  {plain  or 
flainly). 

2.  I  am  frightened  when  she  speaks  (cross  or  crossly)  to  me. 

3.  Sit  with  me  so  that  you  can  hear  (good  or  well). 

4.  Does  he  always  deal  {honest  or  honestly)  with  you  ? 

5.  The  miser  died  {miserable  or  miserably). 

6.  You  came  so  {sudden  or  suddenly)  that  I  was  taken  by  sur- 
prise. 

7.  No  wonder  you  fell,  you  move  too  {quick  or  quickly). 

8.  How  {stylish  or  stylishly)  she  dresses. 

9.  I  {sure  or  surely)  mailed  the  letter. 

10.  Next  time  I  shall  act  more  {sensible  or  sensibly). 

11.  Money  comes  {easy  or  easily)  to  him,  and  is  soon  gone. 

12.  I  felt  so  {bad  or  badly)  that  I  cried. 

13.  I  was  ill  yesterday,  but  I  feel  pretty  {good  or  well)  this  morning. 

14.  All  my  rose  bushes  look  {fine  or  finely). 


72  REVIEW   OF  VERBS 

XXVII.     REVIEW    OF    VERBS 

93.    A  verb  is  an  asserting  word. 

A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  asserts  action  performed  upon 
some  person  or  thing. 

A  transitive  verb  is  completed  by  a  direct  object. 

The  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  a  word  or  a  group  of 
words  that  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb  and  names 
the  receiver  of  the  action. 

The  base  word  of  a  direct  object  is  usually  a  noun. 

An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  asserts,  (1)  being,  or  (2) 
action  not  performed  upon  any  person  or  thing. 

An  intransitive  verb  of  action  needs  no  complement. 

An  intransitive  verb  of  being  is  usually  completed  by  a 
subjective  complement. 

A  subjective  complement  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  that 
completes  a  verb  and  refers  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as 
the  subject. 

A  subjective  complement  denotes  identity  with  the  subject, 
or  tells  the  class  to  which  the  subject  belongs,  or  some  quality 
of  the  subject. 

The  base  word  of  a  subjective  complement  may  be  a  noun 
or  an  adjective. 

Exercise.  —  Select  and  classify  all  the  verbs  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Tell  the  subject  of  each  verb,  and  tell  how 
each  verb  is  completed  or  modified. 

1.  As  soon  as  he  saw  the  cat  in  the  soap  barrel,  he  set  the  lamp 
down  on  the  cellar  bottom,  and  laughed  so  that  he  could  hardly 
move. 

2.  When  night  came,  I  felt  still  more  lonesome. 

3.  Little  Toomai  shall  become  a  great  tracker. 

4.  The  wind  whistled  around  the  low,  unplastered  chamber,  but 
the  beds  were  soft  and  warm,  and  the  guests  were  ready  for  sleep. 

5.  The  youngest  daughter  was  the  gentlest  and  most  beautiful 
creature  ever  seen,  and  the  pride  of  all  the  people  in  the  land. 


REVIEW  OF  VERBS  73 

6.  I  am  too  stiff  and  sore  from  a  terrible  fall  I  have  had,  to 
write  more  than  one  line. 

7.  Next  month,  when  the  city  had  returned  to  its  sunbaked 
quiet,  the  Hindu  did  a  thing  that  no  Englishman  would  have 
dreamed  of  doing;  for,  so  far  as  the  world's  affairs  went, 
he  died. 

8.  The  knoll  in  the  tamarack  swamp  was  a  haven  of  peace  amid 
the  fierce  but  furtive  warfare  of  the  wilderness. 

9.  Beauty  rose  by  four  o'clock  every  morning,  lighted  the  fires, 
''cleaned  the  house,  and  prepared  the  breakfast  for  the  whole  family. 

10.  More  years  sped  swiftly  and  tranquilly  away. 

11.  What  a  place  the  old  market  must  have  been  in  the  days  of 
Herod  the  Builder ! 

12.  The  lizard  belonging  to  my  mistress  was  a  very  beautiful 
creature. 

13.  The  rocky  walls  are  red  with  the  scarlet  of  the  geranium, 
a^glow  with  the  orange  of  the  lantana,  or  they  are  hidden  by  the 
purple  veil  of  the  wild  convolvulus.  The  dainty  sweet  alyssum 
<3lings  to  the  rock  in  great  patches,  and  the  little  rice  plant  lays  its 
pink  cheek  against  it  lovingly. 

14.  The  spring  had  been  a  trying  season  for  the  lank  she-bear. 

15.  Right  proud  the  baron  was  of  his  gallant  steed. 

16.  There  is  the  house  with  the  gate  red-barred. 

17.  The  big  male  cuffed  the  cubs  aside  without  ceremony,  mounted 
the  carcass  with  an  air  of  lordship,  glared  about  him,  and  suddenly 
with  a  snarl  of  wrath,  fixed  his  eyes  upon  the  green  branches  wherein 
the  boy  was  concealed. 

18.  Rip  Van  Winkle  was  a  kind  neighbor  and  an  obedient,  hen- 
pecked husband. 

19.  The  great  error  in  Rip's  composition  was  an  insuperable 
aversion  to  all  kinds  of  profitable  labor. 

I    20.  The  same  sweet  clover  smell  is  in  the  breeze. 

21.  David  stooped  down  and  piled  the  fagots  in  the  hollow  of 
his  arm. 

22.  Gentle  are  the  days  when  the  year  is  young. 

23.  The  winter  sunshine  on  the  fields  seems  full  of  rest. 

24.  I  feel  out  of  place  under  this  roof. 

25.  Strips  of  snow  still  whitened  the  fields,  but  on  the  stumps 
were  bluebirds,  and  they  warbled  of  spring. 

26.  The  great  limb  of  the  cedar  snapped  off,  rolled  over  in  the 
air,  and  lay  on  the  ground  like  a  huge  animal. 


74  NOUNS  :  NUMBER 

XXVIIL     NOUNS:    NUMBER 

94.  When  we  wish  a  noun  to  denote  more  than  one  object, 
we  often  change  its  form  sHghtly.  Man  becomes  men^  child 
becomes  children^  river  becomes  rivers. 

This  change  in  the  form  of  a  noun  by  which  it  denotes  one 
object  or  more  than  one  is  called  number. 

Number  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  properties  of  a  noun. 

95.  When  a  noun  denotes  one  object,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the 
singular  number;   as,  lion,  mousey  knife. 

When  a  noun  denotes  more  than  one  object,  it  is  said  to 
be  in  the  plural  number ;   as,  lions,  mice,  knives. 

96.  Most  nouns  form  their  plural  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the 
singular;  as,  key,  keys;  hand,  hands;  rope,  ropes;  mass, 
masses;  fox,  foxes;  church,  churches;  hush,  bushes. 

This  is  said  to  be  the  regular  way  of  forming  the  plural. 
Why  is  it  that  some  words  add  es  instead  of  s  ? 

97.  Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel  form  their 
plural  by  adding  s;    as,  folio,  folios;   cameo,  cameos. 

Some  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  es, 
and  others  s;  as,  potato,  potatoes;  mosquito,  mosquitoes;  solo, 
solos;  piano,  pianos. 

98.  Some  nouns  form  their  plural  irregularly. 

(1)  A  few  nouns  change  the  vowel ;  as,  man,  men;  goose, 
geese;  mouse,  mice;  foot,  feet;  tooth,  teeth. 

(2)  A  few  nouns  add  en;  as,  ox,  oxen;  child,  children. 

(3)  Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant  sound, 
change  y  to  i  and  add  es;  as,  fly,  flies;  fairy,  fairies. 

(4)  Some  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  change  /  or  fe  to  v  and 
add  es;  as,  wolf,  wolves;  knife,  knives. 

99.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  the  singular 
and  the  plural ;   as,  deer,  grouse,  salmon. 


NOUNS  :  NUMBER  75 

100.  Some  nouns  ending  in  s  look  like  plural  nouns,  but 
are  regarded  as  singular ;  as,  news^  athletics j  gymnastics. 

101.  Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural;  as,  scissors, 
pincers  J  thanks. 

102.  Compound  nouns  form  their  plural  in  three  different 
ways :  — 

(1)  By  adding  s  to  the  last  word  ;  as,  forget-me-not,  forget- 
me-nots. 

(2)  By  adding  s  to  the  principal  word ;  as,  son-in-law, 
sons-in-law. 

(3)  By  pluralizing  both  words ;  as,  manservant,  menser- 
vants. 

103.  When  a  title  is  used  with  one  name,  we  may  pluralize 
either  the  name  or  the  title.  We  may  say  the  Misses  Gray 
or  the  Miss  Grays,  the  Messrs.  Greenwood  or  the  Mr.  Green- 
woods. 

When  a  title  is  used  with  more  than  one  name,  we  pluralize 
the  title.  We  say  the  Misses  Morgan  and  Adams.  The  title 
Mrs.  has  no  plural,  so  we  must  say  Mrs.  Morgan  and  Mrs. 
Adams. 

104.  Letters,  signs,  or  figures  form  their  plurals  by  adding 
an  apostrophe  and  s ;  as,  6's,  i^s,  ^'s. 

105.  A  few  foreign  nouns  have  kept  their  foreign  plurals. 
Some  of  these  in  common  use  are  stratum,  strata;  alumnus, 
alumni;   axis,  axes. 

106.  Some  nouns  have  two  plurals  used  with  slightly 
different  meanings ;  as,  penny  has  pennies  and  pence;  brother 
has  brothers  and  brethren;  die  has  dies  and  dice.  Find  out 
from  the  dictionary  the  meanings  of  these  plurals. 

The  correct  plural  of  a  noun  cannot  always  be  reasoned 
out.  It  should  never  be  guessed.-  It  can  always  be  learned 
from  a  dictionary. 


76 


NOUNS  :  NUMBER 


Summary.  —  Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  by  which 
it  denotes  one  object  or  more  than  one. 

A  singular  noun  denotes  one  object. 

A  plural  noun  denotes  more  than  one  object. 

Nouns  form  their  plural  regularly  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the 
singular. 

Many  nouns  form  their  plural  irregularly. 

Exercise  1. — Tell  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns. 
Tell  how  it  is  formed.  Consult  the  dictionary  when  you  are 
in  doubt. 


alto 

elf 

lioness 

pony 

Dr.  Wright 

apostrophe 

enemy 

loaf 

sheaf 

eyelash 

box 

fez 

mouse 

size 

flagstaff 

brush 

fife 

monkey 

soprano 

General  Allen 

calf 

foot 

motto 

tableau 

hanger-on 

chromo 

German 

negro 

tooth 

jack-in-the-pulpit 

crisis 

half 

noose 

vertebra 

Miss  Davis 

cupful 

hero 

Norman 

volcano 

passer-by 

deer 

hoof 

oasis 

wharf 

postmaster  general 

Dutchman 

lasso 

piano 

court-martial 

will-o'-the-wisp 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  nouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  tell  whether  they  are  singular  or  plural.  Give 
the  singular  of  each  plural  word,  and  the  plural  of  each  singu- 
lar word. 

1.  Listen  !     In  yonder  pine  woods  what  a  cawing  of  crows  ! 

2.  A  washstand  in  the  corner,  a  chest  of  carved  mahogany 
drawers,  a  looking-glass  in  a  filigree  frame,  and  a  high-backed  chair 
studded  with  brass  nails  like  a  coffin  constituted  the  furniture. 

3.  There  have  always  been  medicine  men,  rain  makers,  wizards, 
conjurers,  sorcerers,  astrologers,  and  fortune  tellers,  ready  to  trade 
on  the  fears  of  the  weak,  the  ignorant,  and  the  superstitious. 

4.  April  brought  the  blue  scylla  and  the  sweet  violet;  May 
brought  the  much-loved  narcissus  and  lily  of  the  valley. 

5.  In  came  the  three  Miss  Fezziwigs,  beaming  and  lovable. 

6.  People  hardly  ever  do  know  where  to  be  born  until  it  is  too 
late. 


NOUNS  :  GENDER  77 

7.  The  bell  in  the  church  tower  was  striking  six,  but  I  un- 
dressed for  the  night  and  buried  myself  under  the  bedclothes. 

8.  As  it  fell  out,  the  three  princesses  were  talking  one  night  of 
whom  they  would  marry. 

9.  Poor  Mrs.  Wise  !     I'm  sure  she's  to  be  pitied,  living  here 
with  all  these  grandchildren. 

10.  As  soon  as  Pussy  heard  me  shut  the  gate  in  the  yard  at 
noon,  when  school  was  done,  she  would  run  up  the  stairs  as  hard 
as  she  could  go. 

11.  The  puppy's  nightly  couch  was  outside  the  stable,  even 
during  the  coldest  weather. 

12.  The  fish,  strange  creatures  called  groupers,  with  great  slug- 
gish bodies  and  horribly  human  faces,  come  crowding  up  to  be  fed. 

13.  What  a  hardy  set  of  men  they  were,  those  Northmen  of  old  ! 

14.  The  streams  that  have  entered  into  our  American  life  come 
from  springs  very  wide  apart,  —  from  the  Puritan  whom  James  I 
was  persecuting,  and  from  the  courtiers  whom  he  was  patronizing ; 
from  the  Dutchmen  whom  Charles  II  was  fighting,  and  from  the 
Covenanters  whom  he  was  trying  to  convert  at  the  pistol's  point ; 
from  the  Scotchmen  who  had  captured  the  north  of  Ireland,  and 
from  the  Huguenots  who  had  been  driven  out  of  the  south  of  France. 

What  is  the  use  of  listen ,  sentence  1,  furniture,  2,  horribly y 
12? 

How  are  the  adjectives  weak,  ignorant,  and  superstitious 
used  in  sentence  3? 


XXIX.     NOUNS:    GENDER 

107.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  living  things  is  sex;  that 
is,  all  living  things  are  male  or  female.  Many  nouns  that  are 
names  of  living  things  indicate  sex.  The  noun  king  indicates 
the  male  sex.  The  noun  queen  indicates  the  female  sex.  The 
property  of  a  noun  by  which  it  indicates  the  sex  of  the  object 
named  is  called  gender. 

108.  Since  there  are  two  sexes,  there  must  be  at  least  two 
genders.  Nouns  that  indicate  the  male  sex  are  said  to  be 
of  the  masculine  gender ;  as,  hero,  grandfather. 


78  NOUNS  :  GENDER 

Nouns  that  indicate  the  female  sex  are  said  to  be  of  the 
feminine  gender ;  as,  heUf  tigress j  sister. 

Note  that  sex,  male  or  femah,  refers  to  a  distinction,  or 
difference,  in  the  Uving  creatures  themselves,  while  gender 
is  merely  a  property  of  their  names  that  shows  this  distinction. 
It  is  absurd,  therefore,  to  speak  of  a  person  of  the  masculine 
gender,  but  it  is  allowable  to  speak  of  masculine  qualities, 
masculine  attire,  a  masculine  voice,  etc. 

109.  Since  things  without  life  have  no  sex,  the  nouns  that 
name  such  things  have  no  gender;  as,  sky,  tentj  pie.  Such 
words  are  said  to  be  of  the  neuter  gender.  Neuter  means 
neither, 

110.  Some  nouns  that  may  be  applied  to  persons  of  either 
male  or  female  §ex  are  said  to  be  of  common  gender ;  as,  child, 
cousin,  parent,  clerk, 

111.  Gender  is  denoted  in  three  ways :  — 

(1)  By  a  pair  of  words ;  as,  man,  woman;  bull,  cow;  lad, 
lass, 

(2)  By  inflection,  that  is,  by  adding  a  syllable  to  the  mas- 
culine noun  to  form  the  feminine ;  as,  hero,  heroine;  lion,  lion- 
ess; host,  hostess. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  words  widow  and  widower? 

(3)  By  prefixing  a  word  whose  gender  is  well  known ;  as, 
bull  moose,  maidservant,  she  bear. 

Note.  —  Some  feminine  nouns  are  going  out  of  use.  We  no 
longer  use  the  words  poetess  or  authoress.  If  a  woman  preaches, 
she  is  a  minister;  if  she  practices  medicine,  she  is  a  doctor,  not  a 
.**lady  doctor." 

Summary.  —  Gender  is  that  property  of  a  noun  which  in- 
dicates the  sex  or  non-sex  of  the  object  named. 
There  are  four  genders :  — 

A  noun  of  the  masculine  gender  indicates  the  male  sex. 
A  noun  of  the  feminine  gender  indicates  the  female  sex. 


NOUNS  :  GENDER  79 

A  noun  of  the  neuter  gender  indicates  the  absence  of  sex. 

A  noun  of  common  gender  may  indicate  either  the  male 
or  the  female  sex. 

Gender  is  denoted  (1)  by  different  words,  (2)  by  inflec- 
tion, (3)  by  prefixing  some  gender  word. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  the  gender  of  each  noun  in  the  following 
sentences.  Tell  how  its  gender  is  denoted.  If  you  are  in 
doubt  about  any  word,  consult  the  dictionary. 

1.  The  she  wolf  lay  agonizing  in  the  darkest  corner  of  the  cave, 
licking  in  grim  silence  the  raw  stump  of  her  right  foreleg. 

2.  The  wild  goose  winging  at  the  head  of  the  V  knew  of  good 
feeding  grounds  near  by,  which  he  was  ready  to  revisit. 

3.  Not  vague  was  the  fear  of  the  brooding  grouse  in  the  far-off 
thicket,  though  the  sound  came  to  her  but  dimly. 

4.  At  the  captain's  signal  the  Seabird  came  alongside,  and  Mr. 
Wintermute  left  Mrs.  Howe  and  her  little  family  to  go  on  their 
journey  alone. 

5.  Having  sniffed  the  air  for  several  minutes,  without  discern- 
ing anything  to  interest  him,  the  great  bull  moose  bethought  him 
of  his  evening  meal. 

6.  Here  on  the  ridge  a  buck,  with  his  herd  of  does  and  fawns, 
has  established  his  winter  "yard." 

7.  Without  a  second's  hesitation  the  cow  flung  up  her  tail, 
gave  a  short  bellow,  and  charged  the  bear. 

8.  Another  thing  that  attracts  attention  is  the  animals  tethered 
here,  there,  and  everywhere.  You  see  donkeys,  goats,  cows,  even 
cats,  hens,  and  turkeys,  confined  by  the  inevitable  tether. 

9.  Never  before  since  the  nestlings  broke  the  shell  had  her  mate 
been  so  long  away. 

10.  The  pupils  never  entered  the  study  except  upon  the  most 
formal  occasions. 

11.  A  fine  cock  grouse  alighted  on  a  log  some  forty  paces  distant, 
stretched  himself,  strutted,  spread  his  ruff  and  wings  and  tail,  and 
was  about  to  begin  drumming. 

12.  Pedestrians  walk  where  they  will,  here,  there,  or  yonder. 

13.  Several  men-of-war,  with  a  multitude  of  smaller  craft,  are 
at  anchor  in  Grassy  Bay,  and  the  admiral's  ship  is  lying  on  the 
great  floating  dock  for  repairs. 


80  POSSESSIVE  NOUNS 

14.  Some  civilians  are  buried  here,  and  many  little  children; 
and  I  came  upon  a  pathetic  memorial  to  a  fair  young  English  wife, 
who  followed  her  soldier  husband  hither  with  her  little  child,  only 
to  die  on  these  far-off  shores. 

15.  Any  animal  that  had  died  from  natural  causes  the  wolves 
would  not  touch,  and  they  even  rejected  anything  that  had  been 
killed  by  the  stockmen.  Their  choice  and  daily  food  was  the 
tenderer  part  of  a  freshly  killed  yearling  heifer.  An  old  bull  or  cow 
they  disdained,  and  though  they  occasionally  took  a  young  calf  or 
colt,  it  was  quite  clear  that  veal  or  horseflesh  was  not  their  favorite 
diet.  It  was  also  known  that  they  were  not  fond  of  mutton,  al- 
though they  often  amused  themselves  by  killing  sheep. 


XXX.     POSSESSIVE    NOUNS 

112.  Instead  of  saying,  *'  I  borrowed  the  knife  belonging 
to  Will,"  we  are  likely  to  say,  ^'  I  borrowed  WilFs  knife.'' 
Here  we  have  a  new  form  of  the  noun  Will.  It  is  used  with 
the  noun  knife  to  denote  ownership  of  the  knife,  and  is  called 
a  possessive  noun. 

113.  Since  a  possessive  noun  denotes  ownership,  it  must 
be  used  with  another  noun,  the  name  of  the  thing  owned. 
The  possessive  noun  is  said  to  modify  this  other  noun.  In 
the  expression  doctor^ s  car,  the  possessive  noun  doctor^ s  modi- 
fies the  noun  car. 

When  the  name  of  the  thing  owned  is  well  known,  it  is 
often  omitted.     We  say,  'M  bought  these  skates  at  Percy's,"' 
and  omit  the  word  store.     A  word  omitted  in  this  way  is  said 
to  be  "  understood." 

114.  Possessive  nouns  have  a  certain  form  of  their  own. 
The  possessive  singular  of  a  noun  is  formed  by  adding  to  it 
the  apostrophe  and  s;  as,  girVs  desk ;  friend's  home ;  George's 
boat. 

Note.  —  In  a  few  common  expressions,  like  for  Jesus*  sake,  for  con-' 
science*  sake,  the  possessive  is  formed,  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  by 
adding  merely  the  apostrophe. 


POSSESSIVE  NOUNS  81 

When  the  plural  of  a  noun  ends  in  s,  the  possessive  plural 
is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe ;  as,  girW  league ;  ladies' 
bonnets. 

When  the  plural  of  a  noun  does  not  end  in  s,  the  possessive 
plural  is  formed  by  adding  the  apostrophe  and  s;  as,  women's 
shoes ;  oxen's  yokes. 

115.  When  two  persons  are  joint  owners  of  one  thing,  we 
give  the  possessive  form  to  the  name  of  the  second  person 
only ;  as,  Lewis  and  Fred's  boat. 

When  two  persons  own  separate  things,  the  name  of  each 
person  must  have  the  possessive  form ;  as,  I  went  to  Mandel's 
and  Field' Sj  meaning  two  different  stores. 

116.  Compound  nouns  form  the  possessive  by  adding  the 
sign  of  possession  to  the  last  word ;  as,  singular,  son-in-law's ; 
plural,  sons-in-law's. 

117.  The  possessive  noun  does  not  always  express  actual 
ownership.  Thus,  "  an  hour's  walk  "  means  a  walk  lasting 
an  hour,  "  Lowell's  poems,"  means  the  poems  written  by 
Lowell,  "  a  child's  grief  "  means  the  grief  felt  by  a  child. 
What  is  the  meaning  of  the  day's  work  f  a  good  night's  rest  ? 
a  year's  vacation  f  the  king's  death  ? 

118.  Possession  may  be  denoted  by  a  phrase  beginning  with 
the  preposition  of.  This  phrase  is  much  used.  We  say  the 
back  of  the  chair,  not  the  chair's  back;  the  roots  of  the  elm,  not 
the  elm's  roots.  This  phrase  enables  us  to  avoid  some  awk- 
ward possessives.  What  may  we  say  instead  of  my  cousin's 
wife's  sister  f  the  king  of  Greece's  court  f 

119.  In  the  expression  ^'  this  book  of  John's,"  we  have  what 
is  called  a  double  possessive,  for  we  have  the  possessive  noun 
John's,  and  the  phrase  introduced  by  of.  We  use  the  double 
possessive  when  the  noun  denoting  the  thing  owned  is  first 
modified  by  some  adjective,  as  a,  the,  this,  every,  both,  no. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  6 


82  POSSESSIVE  NOUNS 

Summary.  —  A  possessive  noun  denotes  ownership. 

A  possessive  noun  modifies  another  noun,  expressed  or 
understood. 

The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding  the  apostrophe 
and  s. 

The  possessive  plural  is  formed  by  adding  the  apostrophe 
and  s  if  the  noun  does  not  end  in  s,  and  the  apostrophe  alone 
if  the  noun  does  end  in  s. 

;j    A  double  possessive  is  a  phrase  consisting  of  the  preposition 
of  followed  by  some  possessive  word. 

Exercise  1.  —  Write  the  possessive  of  each  of  these  nouns. 
Tell  whether  it  is  singular  or  plural. 


attorney-general 

dwarfs 

major  generals 

chairman 

foxes 

Miss  James 

city 

geese 

mulatto 

colonies 

goddess 

sailor  boy 

Colonel  Cleveland 

groomsman 

thief 

commander  in  chief 

Frenchman 

witches 

Charles  Dickens 

John  Keats 

woodpecker 

daughters-in-law 

ladies 

yeoman 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  possessive  nouns  in  the  following 
sentences.  Tell  what  nouns  they  modify,  and  whether  they 
are  singular  or  plural.    Tell  also  the  gender  of  each  possessive. 

1.  The  lady's  fondness  and  the  gentleman's  blindness  were 
topics  ably  handled  at  every  sewing  circle  in  the  town. 

2.  St.  Paul's  is  the  largest  Protestant  church  in  the  world. 

3.  Last  year's  nuts  are  this  year's  black  earth. 

4.  On  the  way  home  we  .stopped  at  the  baker's  to  get  some 
cream  puffs. 

5.  Every  debt  of  my  partner's  has  been  paid. 

6.  The  woodsman's  aim  was  true. 

7.  The  singers'  seats,  where  the  pretty  girls  sat,  were  the  most 
conspicuous  of  all. 

8.  A  half  hour's  tramp  through  difficult  woods  brought  him  to 
the  nearest  of  the  waters. 


NOUNS  :  CASE  83 

9.  In  August  we  had  two  weeks*  vacation. 

10.  This  editorial  of  Roosevelt's  is  attracting  much  attention. 

11.  Sulphur  they  could  buy  at  the  apothecary's. 

12.  The  horse  is  coal-black,  which  is  the  regulation  color  of  the 
Horse-Guards'  horses. 

13.  My  clothes  and  my  father's  were  packed  in  a  little  leather  valise. 

14.  The  backwoodsman  cast  a  tender  look  on  the  sleepers'  faces, 
and  slipped  out  of  the  cabin  door  as  silently  as  a  shadow. 

15.  Just  where  we  leave  the  highway  to  go  to  Gibbs's  Hill  we 
pass  a  ruined  house. 

16.  He  had  melted  up  his  wife's  gold  thimble  and  his  great- 
grandfather's gold-bowed  spectacles. 

17.  I  called  on  Nancy  because  she  was  a  friend  of  Miss  Davis's. 

18.  Can  you  give  a  traveler  a  night's  lodging  ? 

19.  When  beechen  buds  begin  to  swell, 

And  woods  the  bluebird's  warble  know, 
The  yellow  violet's  modest  bell 

Peeps  from  the  last  year's  leaves  below. 

Analyze  sentences  2,  3,  5,  6,  8,  9,  11,  16. 

XXXI.     NOUNS:    CASE 

120.  We  have  seen  that  a  noun  may  be  used  in  different 
relations  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  It  may  be  related 
to  a  verb,  for  instance,  as  subject,  as  object,  and  as  sub- 
jective complement.  That  property  of  a  noun  which  shows 
its  relation  to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence  is  called  case. 

121.  The  three  most  important  and  striking  relations  that 
a  noun  may  bear  are  these:  subject  of  a  verb,  object  of  a 
verb,  and  possessive  modifier.     Hence  there  are  three  cases. 

When  a  noun  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  we  say  that  it  is  in 
the  nominative  case. 

When  it  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  we  say  that  it  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

When  it  is  a  possessive  modifier,  we  say  that  it  is  in  the 
possessive  case.     G  f  H  ^ 

The  pronoun  has  the  same  three  cases  as  a  noun. 


84  NOUNS  :  CASE 

122.   A  noun  is  said  to  be  declined  when  we  give  its  three 
case  forms  in  both  the  singular  and  the  plural  number. 

Declension  of  child 


Singular 

Plural 

Nom, 

child 

children 

Poss, 

child's 

children's 

Obj. 

child 

children 

123.  The  noun  in  the  nominative  case  is  used  in  other  re- 
lations besides  that  of  subject  of  a  verb.  The  subjective 
complement  is  in  the  nominative  case,  as  well  as  the  noun 
used  independently. 

When  a  noun  is  object  of  a  preposition,  it  is  in  the  objec- 
tive case. 

Summary.  —  Case  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
which  shows  its  relation  to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

There  are  three  cases. 

A  noun  used  as  subject  of  a  verb,  as  subjective  complement, 
as  an  exclamatory  noun,  or  as  a  term  of  address  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 

A  noun  used  as  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

A  noun  used  as  a  possessive  modifier  is  in  the  possessive 
case. 

Declension  is  the  arrangement  of  the  three  case  forms  of  a 
noun  in  the  two  numbers. 

Exercise.  —  Tell  the  use,  the  case,  the  number,  and  the 
gender  of  every  noun  in  these  sentences. 

1.  The  chill  glitter  of  the  northern  summer  sunrise  was  washing 
down  over  the  rounded  top  of  old  Sugar  Loaf. 

2.  Thank  him  according  to  our  customs,  Mowgli. 

3.  What  a  good  draught  the  nag  takes  ! 

4.  Alas  !  Kitty  Clover,  they  say  it  is  wicked ;  that  I  must  not 
catch  grasshoppers  for  a  pussy  cat  on  Sunday. 


NOUNS:  THE  APPOSITIVE  85 

5.  Why  doesn't  your  mother  make  a  fresh  cup  of  coffee  ? 

6.  We  might  shovel  off  the  snow,  and  dig  down  to  some  of  last 
year's  onions. 

7.  Pilgrim   fathers !    why  should   we   not   glorify   the   pilgrim 
mothers  ? 

8.  What  did  Peterson  Sahib  mean  by  the  elephant  dance  ? 

9.  The  boy  is  the  shoemaker's  friend. 

10.  Mistress  Mary,  quite  contrary, 
How  does  your  garden  grow  ? 

11.  I  didn't  ask  the  captain's  leave  when  I  attended  this  cere- 
mony, for  I  had  a  general  idea  that  he  wouldn't  give  it. 

12.  Caesar  is  certainly  the  handsomest  and  most  gentlemanly  cat 
I  ever  saw. 

13.  How  was  the  Princess's  nose  ring  the  cause  of  your  mis- 
fortune ? 

14.  Comrade,  where  wilt  thou  be  to-night. 
When  the  loosed  storm  breaks  furiously  ? 

15.  Indeed  all  the  really  pretty  girls  that  you  see  are  Americans. 

16.  When  I  opened  the  goldfinch's  door  on  the  morning  of  the 
blackbird's  arrival,  he  paid  no  attention  to  his  beloved  bath,  but 
instantly  flew  over  and  alighted  on  the  cage  of  the  newcomer. 

17.  These  ten  cov/s  knew  their  names  after  a  while,  and  would 
take  their  places  as  I  called  them. 

18.  Oh !  but  he  was  a  tight-fisted  hand  at  the  grindstone,  was 
Scrooge. 

19.  O  time  and  change  !  how  strange  it  seems 
With  so  much  gone  to  still  live  on  ! 

XXXII.     NOUNS:    THE    APPOSITIVE 

124.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to  explain  some  term  we 
use,  and  there  is  a  convenient  way  for  doing  this  without 
making  a  new  sentence.  For  instance,  an  author  writes, 
"  One  of  these  buildings  belongs  to  the  Horse  Guards. '^  Then, 
for  fear  we  may  not  know  who  the  Horse  Guards  are,  he  adds 
these  explanatory  words,  ^^  a  very  fine  body  of  English  cav- 
alry.^' 

This  group  of  words  consists  of  the  noun  body  used  as  a  base 
word,  modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase  of  English  cavalry y 


86  NOUNS:   THE  APPOSITIVE 

the  adjective  element  very  fine^  and  the  article  a.  The  whole 
group  is  placed  beside  the  term  it  explains,  and  is  separated 
from  it  by  a  comma.  Such  a  group  of  words  is  called  an  ap- 
positive,  and  the  base  word  body  is  called  a  noun  in  apposition. 

125.  Sometimes  we  explain  who  a  person  is  by  using  his 
name ;  as,  "I  heard  your  friend,  John  Richards y  say  that 
he  was  going  to  write  to  you.'' 

Sometimes  the  name  of  a  person  or  animal  or  place  is  used 
first,  and  then  explained  by  a  group  of  words ;  as,  ^^  Akela, 
the  great  gray  Lone  Wolf,  lay  out  at  full  length  on  his  rock."  . 

126.  The  appositive  and  the  term  it  explains  are  in  reality 
two  names  for  the  same  person  or  thing.  You  might  think 
that  either  one  could  be  called  the  appositive,  but  this  is 
not  so.  It  is  the  explanatory  term  that  is  the  appositive,  and 
this  is  the  second  of  the  two  terms. 

127.  Sometimes,  when  there  is  no  danger  of  any  misunder- 
standing, the  appositive  comes  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
word  it  modifies ;  as,  "  Splendid  buildings  meet  our  eyes  at, 
every  turn,  —  churches,  private  residences,  places  of  business, 
and  public  edifices."  Can  you  account  for  this  arrange- 
ment? 

128.  Sometimes  an  appositive  has  been  used  so  long  with 
the  word  it  modifies  that  the  two  have  become  united  into 
one  name ;  as,  Peter  the  Hermit,  Peter  the  Great,  William 
the  Conqueror.     Such  an  appositive  is  not  set  off  by  a  comma. 

Note.  —  In  the  term  Peter  the  Great,  the  adjective  great  has 
become  a  noun,  and  is  modified  by  the  adjective  the. 

129.  When  ownership  is  to  be  denoted,  the  sign  of  possession 
is  added  to  the  appositive  instead  of  to  the  term  that  it  ex- 
plains; as,  "  The  poet  Milton's  daughter,^'  "  Mr.  Taft,  the 
president's,  cow,''  "  My  friend  JuUa's  husband." 


NOUNS:  THE  APPOSITIVE  87 

Summary.  —  An  appositive  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words 
placed  after  a  term  to  explain  it. 

When  the  base  word  of  an  appositive  is  a  noun,  it  is  called 
a  noun  in  apposition. 

The  case  of  a  noun  in  apposition  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
noun  it  explains. 

An  appositive  is  a  modifier  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

An  appositive  is  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas  unless  it  makes  one  term  with  the  word  it  modifies. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  appositives  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  tell  what  they  modify.  Find  the  nouns  in  appo- 
sition. Tell  the  case  of  each,  giving  the  reason  in  each  in- 
stance.    Analyze  sentences  1,  2,  3,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10,  11,  16. 

\1.   Alfred  the  Great  loved  books  and  strangers  and  travelers. 
v2.    In  the  neatest,  sandiest  hole  of  all  lived  Benjamin's  aunt  and 
his  cousins,  —  Flopsy,  Mopsy,  Cottontail,  and  Peter. 

3.  The  conversation  turned  to  rheumatism,  a  subject  of  very 
remote  interest  to  Polly. 

4.  My  son  William  became  a  telegraph  operator  before  he  was 
seventeen. 

5.  James  II,  the  bigoted  successor  of  Charles  I,  had  annulled 
the  charters  of  all  the  colonies. 

6.  The  geography  lesson  that  day  was  the  rivers  of  Asia,  —  the 
Obi,  Yenisei,  Lena,  Amoor,  Hoang  Ho,  and  Yang-tse-kiang. 

7.  Some  writers  tell  us  that  Edward  the  Confessor  had  made  a 
will  appointing  Duke  William  his  successor. 

8.  Foremost  among  the  envious  ones  was  the  Princess  Panka,  • 
the  daughter  of  a  neighboring  king. 

9.  Close  to  Charing  Cross  is  Trafalgar  Square,  a  fine  open  space 
with  a  fountain,  and  a  column  to  Lord  Nelson. 

10.  The  body  of  Warwick  the  kingmaker  was  exposed  for  three 
days  on  the  pavement  of  St.  Paul's,  and  then  deposited  among  the 
ashes  of  his  fathers  in  the  abbey  of  Bilsam. 

Ml.    The  pass  was  crowned  with  dense,  dark  forest,  —  deodar, 
walnut,  wild  cherry,  wild  olive,  and  wild  pear. 

12.  Kaa,  the  big  Rock  Python,  had  changed  his  skin  for  perhaps 
the  two  hundredth  time  since  his  birth. 


88  APPOSITIVE  ADJECTIVES 

13.  Eric  the  Red,  a  wandering  Norseman  who  was  dwelling  in 
Iceland,  went  to  sea  and  discovered  Greenland. 

14.  There  are  so  many  things  to  distract  a  boy's  attention,  —  a 
chipmunk  in  the  fence,  a  |bird  on  a  near  tree,  and  a  henhawk  cir- 
cling high  in  the  air  over  the  barnyard. 

15.  Very  soundly  it  slept,  that  doomed  hare  crouching  under  the 
fir  bush ! 

16.  They  had  never  been  accounted  for,  Rebecca's  eyes. 


XXXIII.     APPOSITIVE    ADJECTIVES 

130.  Adjectives  are  not  always  placed  before  the  noun  they 
modify.  When  they  are  used  as  subjective  complements,  they 
follow  the  verb,  although  they  modify  the  subject ;  as,  '^  Life 
is  real,^^  "  The  air  seems  moist  J  ^  We  also  find  many  sen- 
tences like  the  following,  ^'  The  camel,  restless  and  weary, 
groans  and  occasionally  shows  his  teeth." 

Here  it  is  evident  that  the  adjectives  restless  and  weary  are 
in  the  sentence  to  describe  the  camel ;  hence  they  modify  the 
noun  camelj  but  instead  of  preceding  this  noun,  they  follow  it. 
Because  of  their  position  such  adjectives  are  called  appositlve 
adjectives. 

131.  An  appositive  adjective  is  usually  set  off  by  a  comma 
or  commas.  It  is  frequently  modified  by  a  phrase,  as  in  the 
expressions,  "  restless  under  his  heavy  load,''  ''  weary  with 
the  long  journey.'' 

Summary.  —  An  adjective  with  or  without  modifiers  may 
be  used  as  an  appositive. 
\J     An  appositive  adjective  is  usually  set  off  from  the  rest  of 
^  the  sentence  by  a  comma. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  appositive  adjectives  in  these 
sentences,  and  tell  what  they  modify.  Give  the  modifiers 
of  each  adjective.  Account  for  the  punctuation.  Analyze 
sentences  2,  4,  5,  6,  7,  11,  12. 


INDIRECT  OBJECT  89 

1.   His  tunic,  scarlet  in  color,  is  of  the  softest  woolen  fabric. 

V  2.  The  skirt  drops  to  the  knee  in  folds  heavy  with  embroidery. 
3.  Grandfather  Nutter  was  a  hale,  cheery  old  gentleman,  as 
straight  and  as  bald  as  an  arrow. 

^  4.  The  pink  rose,  dear  for  its  old  associations,  was  transplanted 
to  a  sunny  place  close  by  the  south  door. 

^^  5.   Presently  the  Colonel  came  in,  bluff,  warm,  and  hearty. 

*^  6.  From  the  other  window  one  saw  the  distant  forest,  so  deep, 
black,  and  mysterious. 

'  7.  The  April  night,  softly  chill  and  full  of  the  sense  of  thaw, 
was  closing  down  over  the  wide  salt  marshes  ! 

8.  Presently,  from  far  along  the  dark  heights  of  the  sky,  came 
voices,  hollow,  musical,  confused. 

9.  Here  is  a  foot  passenger,  dusty  and  tired,  who  comes  with 
lagging  steps. 

10.    There  is- no  nation  known  to  history  in  which  all  citizens, 
male  and  female,  old  and  young,  native  and  foreign  born,  have  had 
tjtie  suffrage. 
ill.    Ginger  hurried  off  into  the  darkness,  wild  with  excitement. 

12.  The  chief  engineer  entered  the  smoking  room  for  a  moment, 
red,  smiling,  and  wet. 

s 
XXXIV.     INDIRECT    OBJECT 

132.  We  have  seen  that  the  direct  object  names  the  re- 
ceiver of  the  action  asserted  by  the  verb.  In  the  sentence, 
''  Kotuko  made  his  dog  a  tiny  harness/^  the  direct  object  of  the 
verb  made  is  a  tiny  harness,  for  this  group  of  words  tells  what 
received  the  making,  and  answers  the  question  made  what  f 

If  we  go  further  and  ask  the  question,  made  a  harness  for 
what?  the  answer  is,  his  dog.  This  group  of  words  is  called 
the  indirect  object.  It  names  the  receiver  of  the  direct  object ; 
that  is,  the  dog  received  the  harness. 

133.  An  indirect  object  is  always  in  the  objective  case,  but 
it  is  not  a  complement  of  the  verb,  because  it  is  not  a  necessary 
element  of  a  sentence.  We  call  it  a  modifier  of  the  verb.  The 
sentence,  *^  In  the  morning  the  old  wife  gave  the  princess 
three  nuts,"  would  be  complete  if  we  left  out  the  indirect 


90  INDIRECT  OBJECT 

object  the  'princess,  and  merely  told  what  the  old  wife  gave, 
namely,  three  nuts. 

Notice  that  the  indirect  object  comes  between  the  verb 
and  the  direct  object.  If  we  place  it  after  the  direct  object, 
we  must  supply  the  preposition  to  or  Jor,  and  then  instead  of 
an  indirect  object  we  shall  have  a  prepositional  phrase. 

Summary.  —  An  indirect  object  is  a  word  or  a  group  of 
words  that  tells  to  whom  or  for  whom,  to  what  or  for  what, 
something  is  done. 

An  indirect  object  names  the  receiver  of  the  direct  object. 

An  indirect  object  precedes  the  direct  object. 

An  indirect  object  is  a  modifier  of  a  verb. 

An  indirect  object  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Only  a  few  transitive  verbs  take  both  direct  and  indirect 
objects.  Some  of  them  are  bring,  buy,  do,  get,  give,  lend,  makCy 
pass,  pay,  promise,  sell,  send,  show,  take,  telly  write. 

Exercise  1.  —  Write  sentences  containing  both  direct  and 
indirect  objects,  using  verbs  in  the  list  above. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  both  the  direct  and  the  indirect  objects 
in  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons  :  — 

1.  Carry  your  grandmamma  a  custard  and  a  little  pot  of  butter. 

2.  Aladdin  made  his  mother  very  little  reply. 

3.  I  showed  my  comrades  a  large  heap  of  stones. 

4.  Mrs.  Howe  bad  promised  the  children  presents,  so  she  bought 
George  a  gun,  Mollie  two  gold  rings,  and  Paul  a  checkerboard. 

5.  I  wish  the  Lord  would  give  horses  voices  for  just  one  week. 

6.  Bring  my  mother  six  women  slaves  to  attend  her. 

7.  If  you  offer  Dash  a  bit  of  sheep's  wool  now,  he  tucks  his  tail 
between  his  legs,  and  runs  for  home. 

8.  I  never  told  my  schoolmates  that  I  was  a  Yankee. 

9.  I  paid  Gypsy  a  visit  every  half  hour  during  the  first  day  of 
my  arrival. 

10.  Then  the  magician  gave  Aladdin  a  handful  of  small  money. 

11.  Father  Andrew  also  taught  Tom  a  little  Latin. 

12.  The  sultan  granted  Aladdin  his  request  and  again  embraced 
him. 


ADVERBIAL  NOUN    PHRASES  91 

XXXV.     ADVERBIAL    NOUN   PHRASES 

134.  We  have  learned  that  a  frequent  modifier  of  a  verb 
is  a  prepositional  phrase  telling  the  place  or  time  of  an  action ; 
as,  "  So  off  we  go  in  the  cool,  clear  morning.'^ 

Sometimes  a  noun,  or  a  group  of  words  of  which  a  noun  is 
the  base  word,  takes  the  place  of  this  prepositional  phrase ; 
as,  *^  Last  summer  the  apple  trees  bore  no  fruit." 

The  words  last  summer  tell  time,  and  modify  the  predicate 
bore  no  fruit,  but  there  is  no  preposition  in  this  group  of  words. 
Summer  is  a  noun  modified  by  the  adjective  last.  Such  a 
group  of  words  we  call  an  adverbial  noun  phrase.  The  noun 
used  as  base  word  we  call  an  adverbial  noun. 

135.  An  adverbial  noun  phrase  tells  not  only  time  and 
place,  but  it  often  answers  such  questions  as  how  far  f  how 
long?  how  much?  as,  ^'  VTe  walked  the  whole  distance  before 
sunset."  '^  She  stayed  in  London  ten  days^  "  One  orange 
weighed  twelve  ounces.^' 

Summary.  —  An  adverbial  noun  phrase  is  a  group  of  words 
of  which  a  noun  is  the  base  word,  that  tells  the  time  or  place 
of  an  action,  or  how  long,  how  far,  or  how  much. 

An  adverbial  noun  phrase  modifies  a  verb. 

An  adverbial  noun  is  always  in  the  objective  case. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  adverbial  noun  phrases  and  the 
'nouns  used  as  base  words.  Tell  what  the  phrases  modify, 
and  what  questions  they  answer.  (Notice  that  these  phrases 
often  modify  more  of  the  predicate  than  just  the  verb.)  Ana- 
lyze sentences  1,  3,  4,  5,  6,  9,  10. 

1.  He  followed  her  to  school  one  day. 

2.  Each  boy  who  failed  to  report  himself  was  fined  one  cent. 

3.  Elizabeth  Eliza  went  home  directly. 

4. •Morning,  noon,  and  night,  Dame  Van  Winkle's  tongue  was 
incessantly  going. 


92  ADVERBIAL  NOUN   PHRASES 

5.  His  keen,  sonorous,  passionate  cry  rang  strangely  on  the 
night,  three  times. 

6.  The  trail  was  an  easy  one  this  time. 

7.  There  the  wild  plum  each  summer  fruited  abundantly ;  and 
there  a  sturdy  brotherhood  of  beeches  each  autumn  lavished  their 
treasure  of  three-cornered  nuts. 

8.  I  worked  a  whole  week  to  get  the  traps  properly  set  out. 

9.  The  next  instant  the  panther  received  a  smart  blow  on  the 
top  of  his  head.  / 

10.  Kala  Nag,  the  elephant,  stood  ten  fair  feet  at  the  shoulder.    ' 

11.  Ere  the  cow  had  gone  twenty-five  yards,  Lobo  was  upon  her.' 

12.  The  next  morning  Mrs.  Peterkin  began  by  taking  out  the 
things  that  were  already  in  her  trunk. 

XXXVI.     ADVERBIAL  NOUN   PHRASES 

136.  When  we  wish  to  tell  how  long,  or  wide,  or  deep,  or 
thick  a  thing  is,  we  frequently  make  use  of  such  statements 

The  valley  is  nine  miles  long. 
The  street  is  sixty  feet  wide. 
The  water  is  ten  fathoms  deep. 
The  shces  were  an  inch  thick. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  first  sentence  the  question  how 
long  f  is  answered  by  the  words  nine  miles.  Hence  this  group 
of  words  modifies  the  adjective  lonQj  having  the  same  use  as 
the  adverb  very  in,  "  The  valley  is  very  long."  But  the  base 
word  of  this  group  is  the  noun  miles j  hence  the  whole  group  ^ 
must  be  an  adverbial  noun  phrase.  We  conclude  from  this ! 
familiar  sentence  that  an  adverbial  noun  phrase  may  modify 
an  adjective. 

What  adverbial  noun  phrase  modifies  wide?  deep?  thick? 

Make  sentences  in  which  an  adverbial  noun  phrase  modi- 
fies the  adjectives  oldj  tall,  high. 

137.  The  adverbial  noun  phrase  may  also  modify  an  ad- 
verb, as  in  the  sentence,  ^'  She  came  two  hours  afterward," 
where  two  hours  answers  the  question  how  long  afterward? 
How  do  we  know  that  afterward  is  an  adverb  ? 


ADVERBIAL   NOUN   PHRASES  93 

Note.  —  A  common  illustration  of  this  use  is  found  in  the  familiar 
expression  a  short  time  ago,  where  the^adverb  ago  (which  is  never  used 
by  itself)  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  noun  phrase  a  short  time. 
Think  of  five  other  noun  phrases  often  used  to  modify  ago. 

Summary.  —  An  adverbial  noun  phrase  may  modify  an  ad- 
jective or  an  adverb.  In  such  a  case  it  denotes  a  measure 
of  some  sort. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  adverbial  nguns  and  the  phrases  of 
which  they  are  the  base  words.  Tell  what  these  phrases 
modify,  and  what  questions  they  answer. 

1.   About  an  hour  later  a  big  red  fox  came  trotting  into  the 
glade. 

V    2.   When  the  stone  was  pulled  up,  there  appeared  a  staircase 
about  three  or  four  feet  deep,  leading  to  a  door. 

3.  The  trail  was  perhaps  an  hour  old. 

4.  After  viewing  old  Fort  SnelHng,  we  walked  a  mile  farther  to 
the  parade  ground,  and  watched  the  soldiers  drill. 

5.  An  ordinary  wolf's  forefoot  is  four  and  one  half  inches  long. 

6.  Lobo  stood  three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  and  weighed  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

7.  If  the  crows  do  not  kill  the  owl,  they  at  least  worry  him  half 
to  death  and  drive  him  twenty  miles  away. 

8.  It  is  a  curious  fact  about  boys  that  two  will  be  a  great  deal 
slower  in  doing  anything  than  one. 

9.  When  the  eagle  returned  an  hour  later  to  the  point  of  shoals, 
the  net  looked  less  strange  to  him. 

10.  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  American  minister  at  the  court 
of  Turin  was  conversing  with  a  young  Italian  of  high  rank  from  the 
island  of  Sardinia. 

11.  The  largest  aboriginal  structure  of  stone  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States  has  a  circuit  of  1480  feet,  is  five  stories  high,  and 
once  included  five  hundred  separate  rooms. 

12.  How  many  years  did  Jacob  serve  for  Rachel  ? 

13.  The  week  before  the  election  one  of  the  candidates  for  mayoi 
spoke  to  an  audience  of  laboring  men  every  evening. 

14.  That  day  I  left  the  university,  and  my  trial  took  place  a 
little  while  later. 

15.  David  reflected  a  few  moments  longer. 


94  OBJECTIVE  COMPLEMENT 

XXXVII.     OBJECTIVE    COMPLEMENT 

138.  In  the  sentence,  "  The  boys  called  the  turtles  Harry 
Blake's  sheep/'  the  verb  is  followed  by  two  noun  elements. 
What  are  they?  The  second  element  is  not  an  appositive 
of  the  first,  neither  have  we  here  a  direct  and  an  indirect 
object.     Prove  this. 

If  we  ask  the  question.  What  did  the  boys  call  Harry 
Blake's  sheep?  the  answer  is,  the  turtles;  hence  this  must  be 
the  direct  object  of  called.  But  the  sentence  is  not  complete 
here.  We  do  not  mean  that  the  boys  called  the  turtles,  that 
is,  summoned  them.  We  mean  that  they  named  the  turtles. 
If  we  ask  the  question,  ^' What  did  the  boys  call  the  turtles? '' 
the  answer  is,  "  Harry  Blake's  sheep,''  This  group  of  words 
is  necessary  as  a  second  complement  of  the  verb,  and  at  the 
same  time  it  tells  what  the  turtles  became  as  a  result  of  call- 
ing, or  naming,  them.  Such  an  element  is  called  an  objective 
complement,  because  it  tells  something  about  the  direct  object. 

The  base  word  of  an  objective  complement  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

139.  Not  all  transitive  verbs  take  an  objective  comple- 
ment ;  but  only  verbs  of  making  or  causing,  such  as  make, 
call,  name,  elect,  appoint,  choose. 

140.  Sometimes  the  objective  complement  has  an  adjective 
for  its  base  word  instead  of  a  noun;  as,  "  The  great  wood-i 
fire  in  the  tiled  chimney  place  made  om*  sitting  room  very 
cheerful  of  winter  nights." 

Summary.  —  An  objective  complement  is  a  word  or  a 
group  of  words  that  helps  to  complete  the  verb,  and  tells  what 
the  direct  object  becomes  as  a  result  of  the  action  asserted 
by  the  verb. 

The  base  word  of  an  objective  complement  may  be  either 
a  noun  or  an  adjective. 


OBJECTIVE  COMPLEMENT  95 

Exercise.  —  Find  all  the  objective  complements  in  the 
following  sentences  and  tell  about  them  in  this  way :  — 

Model.  —  Ben  called  this  room  his  cabin. 

His  cabin  is  a  noun  element  used  as  objective  comple- 
ment of  the  verb  called,  because  it  tells  what  the  direct  object, 
this  room,  becomes  as  a  result  of  the  calling.  The  base  word 
of  this  objective  complement  is  the  noun  cabin, 

I       1.   His  blue  beard  made  him  so  ugly  and  so  terrible  in  appear-^ 
ance  that  women  and  children  fled  from  him. 

2.  She  kept  the  cottage  always  as  neat  as  a  new  pin. 

3.  By  much  trampling  we  had  made  the  salt  marsh  a  mere 
quagmire. 

4.  This  mother,  proud  of  her  knowledge  of  French,  always 
called  her  little  daughter  Mademoiselle. 

5.  If  ever  I  have  a  boy  to  bring  up  in  the  way  he  should  go,  I 
shall  make  Sunday  a  cheerful  day  to  him. 

6.  To  the  great  amusement  of  my  grandfather.  Sailor  Ben 
painted  the  cottage  a  light  sky-blue. 

7.  'Then,  inch  by  inch,  the  untempered  heat  crept  into  the 
heart  of  the  Jungle,  turning  it  yellow,  brown,  and  at  last  black. 

8.  The  fish  had  buried  themselves  deep  in  the  dry  mud. 

9.  The  natives  of  Bermuda  call  the  tamarisk  the  '*  salt-cedar." 

10.  Nature  meant  him  for  a  frontiersman,  but  circumstances 
made  him  an  innkeeper. 

11.  The  only  way  that  they  could  set  the  king*s  head  straight  was 
to  remove  it. 

12.  Columbus  rechristened  the  island  San  Salvador,  but  its  pre- 
cise identity  has  always  been  a  little  doubtful. 

13.  A  parrot  would  shriek  me  wild  in  a  week. 

14.  Skin  changing  always  makes  a  snake  moody  and  depressed 
tiU  the  new  skin  begins  to  shine  and  look  beautiful. 

15.  The  giver  makes  the  gift  precious. 

16.  The  sound  of  a  bell  struck  the  merrymakers  dumb. 

17.  Who  appointed  you  judge  of  your  brother  ? 

18.  The  dim  hght  of  stars  rendered  large  objects  near  at  hand 
visible  in  bulk  and  outline. 

19.  We  call  domestic  animals  dependent  creatures ;  but  who 
made  them  dependent? 


96  PARSING  OF  NOUNS 

XXXVIII.     PARSING   OF   NOUNS 

141.   When  we  tell  all  that  is  true  about  a  noun  from  a 
grammatical  point  of  view,  we  are  said  to  parse  it. 
In  parsing  a  noun  we  should  tell :  — 

(1)  Its  class,  —  common  or  proper. 

(2)  Its  person,  —  first,  second,  or  third.     (See  Note.) 

(3)  Its  number,  —  singular  or  plural. 

(4)  Its  gender,  —  masculine,  feminine,  neuter,  or  common. 

(5)  Its  case,  — nominative,  possessive,  or  objective. 

(6)  Its  use  in  the  sentence. 

Note. — Nouns  do  not  change  their  form  for  person.  Since  they 
are  almost  allways  the  names  of  persons  or  things  spoken  of,  they 
are  usually  in  the  third  person.  A  noun  is  in  the  first  person  when 
it  is  used  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person.  (See  p.  98.) 
A  noun  is  in  the  second  person  (1)  when  it  is  used  in  apposition  with 
a  pronoun  of  the  second  person ;  (2)  when  it  is  used  as  a  term  of 
address. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  each  noun  in  the  following  sentences:  — 

1.  All  the  great  men  of  the  neighborhood  were  there  on  horse- 
back,—  militia  officers  in  uniform,  the  member  of  Congress,  the 
sheriff  of  the  county,  the  editors  of  newspapers,  and  many  a  farmer,, 
too,  had  mounted  his  patient  steed  or  come  on  foot. 

2.  Next  day  Mowgli  himself  fell  into  a  very  cunning  leopard  trap. 

3.  The  Bermudas  are,  with  the  exception  of  Gibraltar,  England's^ 
most  strongly  fortified  hold. 

4.  Then  Mrs.  Howe  graciously  showed  the  admiring  ladies  her 
collection  of  fine  lace  and  embroideries. 

5.  The  thoughtful,  lonely  ways  of  their  admiral  made  Columbus 
an  object  of  terror  to  his  ignorant  seamen. 

6.  I  thought  that  nothing  in  the  world  was  so  beautiful  as  the 
sultan  my  father's  palace. 

7.  Perhaps  your  fish  is  eighteen  inches  long. 

8.  Here  comes  the  boat !  This  is  your  waterproof,  Hetty. 
Be  careful  now.  Miss  Alice.  Mrs.  Blank,  you  will  need  your  sun 
umbrella.     Hold  on  a  minute,  skipper,  till  I  get  that  basket. 


PARSING  OF  NOUNS  97 

9.  At  nine  o'clock,  Williams,  a  bronze  Hercules,  low-voiced,, 
gentle-mannered,  a  trusty  boatman,  and  an  enthusiast  in  his  call- 
ing,  met  us  at  the  dock. 

10.  The  savage  sticks  bright  feathers  in  his  hair,  carries  a  toma-^ 
hawk,  and  wears  moccasins  upon  his  nimble  feet. 

11.  Some  evenings  afterward  the  same  thing  happened  at  another 
corner  of  the  pasture. 

12.  The  imioeent  savages  gave  Columbus  a  new  world  for  Castile 
and  Leon,  and  he  gave  them  some  glass  beads  and  little  red  caps. 

13.  The  sultan  received  the  present  from  Aladdin's  mother's  hand. 

14.  The  elephant  was  thoughtfully  chewing  the  green  stem  of  a 
young  plantain  tree. 

15.  In  the  good  old  days  the  boys  on  the  coast  ran  away  and 
became  sailors. 

16.  I  was  a  favorite  with  the  cooks,  and  so,  although  they  denied 
my  cousins  certain  privileges  of  the  kitchen,  they  freely  granted 
these  to  me. 

17.  The  Norsemen  called  gold  "  the  serpent's  bed.*' 

Summary  of  Case  Relations 
Nominative. 

(1)  Subject  of  a  verb. 

(2)  Term  of  address. 

(3)  Exclamatory  noun. 

(4)  Subjecti^^e  complement  of  a  verb. 

(5)  Appositive. 

(6)  Nominative  absolute  (see  p.  237). 
Possessive. 

(1)  Modifier  of  a  noun. 
Objective. 

(1)  Object  of  a  verb. 

(2)  Object  of  a  preposition. 

(3)  Appositive. 

(4)  Indirect  Object. 

(5)  Adverbial  noun. 

(6)  Objective  complement. 

Make  an  original  sentence  to  illustrate  each  of  the  case  re- 
lations of  a  noun. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  7 


98  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

XXXIX.     PERSONAL    PRONOUNS 

142.  Certain  pronouns,  as  7,  you,  he,  it,  etc.,  show  by  their 
form  that  they  refer  to  the  person  speaking,  the  person  spoken 
to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

The  pronoun  /  denotes  the  person  speaking,  and  is  said  to 
be  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person. 

The  pronoun  you  denotes  the  person  spoken  to,  and  is  said 
to  be  a  pronoun  of  the  second  person. 

The  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it  denote  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of,  and  are  said  to  be  pronouns  of  the  third  person. 

Such  pronouns  are  called  personal  pronouns. 

143.  The  noun  that  a  pronoun  stands  for,  whether  it  is 
expressed  somewhere  in  the  sentence  or  merely  understood, 
is  called  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun. 

144.  All  the  personal  pronouns  have  several  different  forms, 
and  if  we  wish  to  speak  our  language  correctly,  we  must  know 
these  forms  and  be  careful  in  their  use.  The  personal  pro- 
nouns are  declined  as  follows :  — 


First  Person 

Second  Person 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

Nom, 

I 

we 

you 

you 

Poss, 

my,  mine 

cm*,  ours 

your,  yours 

your,  yours 

Ohj. 

me 

us 

you 

you 

Third  Person 

Singular 

Plural 

Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

Nom. 

he 

she 

it 

they 

Poss. 

his 

her,  hers 

its 

their,  theirs 

Ohj. 

him 

her 

it     ' 

them 

145.  There  is  another  personal  pronoun  of  the  second  per- 
son—  thou.  It  is  not  used  in  conversation  nowadays,  but 
is  frequently  found  in  the  Bible  and  in  poetry.  It  is  declined 
as  follows:  — 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  99 


Singular 

Plural 

Norn, 

thou 

ye 

Poss, 

thy,  thine 

your,  yours 

Obj. 

thee 

you 

Summary.  —  A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  shows  by 
its  form  whether  it  denotes  the  person  speaking,  the  person 
spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  7,  thouj  you,  he,  she,  it,  and  their 
various  ease  forms  in  the  two  numbers. 

The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  word  for  which  it  stands. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  personal  pronouns.  Tell  from 
the  form  of  each  its  person  and  number,  and,  if  it  is  a  pronoun 
of  the  third  person,  tell  also  its  gender.  Where  it  is  possible, 
tell  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun. 

1.  Hide  me  in  the  oven. 

2.  First  lay  aside  your  black  veil,  then  tell  us  why  you  put  it  on. 

3.  While  we  were  following  the  direction  of  his  finger,  a  sound  of 
distant  oars  fell  on  our  ears. 

4.  If  you  want  a  thing,  and  have  no  money  to  buy  it,  go  without 
it  until  you  can  pay  for  it. 

5.  Though  the  Jungle  People  drink  seldom,  they  must  drink 
.  deep. 

6.  The  whelps  were  evidently  very  young,  but  their  ears  were 
wide  open,  and  they  stood  up  on  strong  legs  when  the  boy  touched 
them  gently  with  his  palm. 

7.  "Well,"  said  grandfather,  **I  tell  you  one  thing;  the  game 
will  last  me  till  that  poor  cat  gets  well  again." 

8.  They  sent  him  for  troops  only  the  sweepings  of  the  galleys. 

9.  My  driftwood  fire  will  burn  so  bright ! 
To  what  warm  shelter  canst  thou  fly? 
I  do  not  fear  for  thee,  though  wroth 
The  tempest  rushes  through  the  sky. 

10.  Caught  in  a  steel  trap,  she  had  gnawed  off  her  own  paw  as 
the  price  of  freedom. 

11.  At  recess  he  gave  me  the  core  of  his  apple,  though  there  were 
several  applicants  for  it. 


100  USES  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

XL.     USES    OF   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS 

146.  The  personal  pronoun,  since  it  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun,  has  almost  all  the  uses  of  a  noun.     It  may  be,  — 

(1)  The  subject  of  a  verb;  as,  "/  only  know  I  cannot 
drift  beyond  His  love  and  care.'' 

The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  always  the  pro- 
noun you,  thou  J  or  ye,  but  this  pronoun  is  seldom  expressed; 
as,  "Telegraph  for  staterooms  at  once.'' 

(2)  The  base  word  of  a  term  of  address;  as,  "  Ho,  ye  who 
suffer,  know  ye  suffer  for  yourselves." 

(3)  The  subjective  complement  of  a  verb;  as,  ''This  man, 
good  Uderim,  is  he  who  told  you  of  me." 

(4)  The  base  word  of  an  appositive  phrase;  as,  ''The 
fourth  lackey,  he  of  the  two  gold  watches,  poured  the  choc- 
olate out." 

(5)  A  possessive  modifier;  as,  "  All  the  harmless  wood  folk 
were  his  friends." 

Note.  —  The  possessive  pronoun  is  often  intensified  by  the  adjec- 
tive own,  which  modifies  the  same  noun  that  the  possessive  pronoun 
modifies ;  as,  "This  is  my  own,  my  native  land.'* 

(6)  The  direct  object  of  a  verb;  as,  "  The  farm  boy  spreads 
the  grass  after  the  men  have  cut  itJ^ 

(7)  The  object  of  a  preposition;  as,  "What  a  new  world 
did  that  party  open  to  him  !  " 

(8)  An  indirect  object;  as,  "Here  will  the  cattle  come  to 
drink,  and  I  will  kill  me  a  yearling  heifer." 

Exercise.  —  Select  and  parse  all  the  personal  pronouns 
in  the  following  sentences.  In  parsing  a  personal  pronoun 
we  should  tell  its  person,  number,  gender,  antecedent,  case, 
and  use  in  the  sentence. 

1.  I  verily  believe  that  my  ill  looks  alone  saved  me  a  flogging. 

2.  Taste  the  tamarisk,  and  you  get  the  very  flavor  of  the  brine. 

3.  Then  I  swung  my  lasso,  and  sent  it  whistling  over  his  head. 


USES  OF  PERSONAI.  PRbNyr/Nl?  - '   '        K)l 

4.  They  worked  together,  read  together,  walked  together, 
planned  together,  she  and  her  daughter,  and  in  all  things  were 
friends  and  companions. 

5.  Mother  Wolf  would  throw  up  her  head,  and  sniff  a  deep 
snuff  of  satisfaction  as  the  wind  brought  her  the  smell  of  the  tiger 
skin  on  the  Council  Rock. 

6.  The  old  crow  spread  the  shells  out  in  the  sun,  turned  them 
over,  lifted  them  one  by  one  in  his  beak,  dropped  them,  nestled  on 
them  as  though  they  were  eggs,  toyed  with  them,  and  gloated  over  ^ 
them  like  a  miser. 

7.  The  spirits  have  spoken  to  Kotuko.  They  will  show  him 
open  ice.     He  will  bring  us  the  seal  again. 

8.  The  rank  swamp  grass  concealed  the  nest  where  Raggylug's 
mother  had  hidden  him. 

9.  Across  the  lowly  beach  we  flit, 
One  little  sandpiper  and  I. 

10.  Up  jumped  Scarface,  for  it  was  he,  and  ran. 

11.  And  a  voice  that  was  calmer  than  silence  said, 
"Lo!     It  is  I.     Be  not  afraid." 

12.  Nearly  every  cottage  in  England  has  its  little  garden  full  of 
blooming  plants  and  shrubs. 

13.  **  Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three,  — 

Himself,  his  hungering  neighbor,  and  Me." 

14.  This  is  he  that  was  spoken  of  by  the  prophet. 

15.  Arise,  and  take  the  young  child  and  his  mother,  and  flee  into 
Egypt,  and  be  thou  there  until  I  bring  thee  word. 

16.  I  called  my  servant,  and  he  came ; 

How  kind  it  was  of  him 
To  mind  a  slender  man  like  me, 
He  of  the  mighty  limb. 

17.  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  his  paths  straight. 

18.  It  is  so  slippery  and  shiny  down  here,  and  the  stage  is  so 
much  too  big  for  me,  that  I  rattle  round  in  it  till  I'm  almost  black 
and  blue. 

19.  These  are  they  who  have  passed  through  much  tribulation. 

20.  O  thou  that  roUest  above,  round  as  the  shield  of  my  fathers, 
whence  comes  thy  everlasting  light  ? 

147.  Many  errors  are  made  in  the  form  of  personal  pro- 
nouns. 

(1)  When  a  pronoun  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  it 


102  DBK8  0?  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

must  have  the  nominative  form,  hence  the  correct  answer  to 
the  question,  Who  is  there?  is  /  (not  me). 

(2)  When  several  pronouns  are  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
same  verb,  the  pronoun  of "  the  second  person  should  come 
first,  and  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  should  come  last. 
We  should  say,  — 

You  and  he  and  I  have  been  chosen. 
You  and  I  were  on  time. 
He  and  1  read  the  book. 

Can  you  justify  Whittier's  lines?  . 

Ah,  brother,  only  /  and  thou 
Are  left  of  all  that  circle  now. 

(3)  For  the  subject  of  a  sentence  we  may  use  the  expressions 
we  boys  J  we  girls  j  we  Americans ,  etc. 

We  girls  bought  the  pictures. 

We  boys  set  up  the  tents. 

We  Baptists  had  a  church  supper. 

(4)  A  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  an  intransitive 

verb  of  being  must  have  the  nominative  form.     We  should 

say,  — 

Yes,  it  was  /. 

No,  it  was  not  she. 

Perhaps  it  is  he. 

It  is  surely  they. 

(5)  A  pronoun  used  as  object  of  a  verb  must  have  the  ob- 
jective form.     We  should  say,  — 

Mrs.  Albee  invited  mother  and  me. 
Did  you  see  Julia  and  me  in  the  gallery  ? 
Didn't  you  expect  him  and  her? 
She  will  never  suspect  you  and  me. 
That  team  can't  heat  us  boys. 


USES  OF  POSSESSIVE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS    103 

(6)   A  pronoun  used  as  object  of  a  preposition  must  have 
the  objective  form.     We  should  say,  — 

Leo  wrote  first  to  her  and  me. 

Father  will  call  for  you  and  me. 

Between  you  and  me  he  was  afraid. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  Carrie  and  me. 

They  can  never  catch  up  with  us  girls. 

Exercise.  —  Fill  each  blank  in  the  following  sentences  with 
a  pronoun  having  the  correct  case  form.     Give  your  reasons. 

1.  Mother  says  that  it  was and  not that  paid  off  the 

mortgage. 

2.  Who  left  the  room  first?     ,  but  Mary  was  close  behind 


3.   fellows  are  going  to  have  a  debating  society. 

4.  The  German  teacher  gave  you  and the  same  passage  to 

translate. 

5.  There  must  be  no  secrets  between and . 

6.  When  do  you  expect  Grandmother  and ? 

7.  Perhaps girls  are  most  to  blame. 

8.  Nobody  chose or ,  so and sat  on  the  stairs 

and  talked. 

XLL     USES    OF   POSSESSIVE   PERSONAL 
PRONOUNS 

148.  When  we  studied  the  declension  of  personal  pro- 
nouns, we  learned  that  all  of  them  except  it  and  he  have  two 
forms  in  the  possessive  case.  These  forms  are  mt/,  mine; 
our,  ours;  thy,  thine;  your,  yours;  her,  hers;  and  their,  theirs. 
There  is  a  difference  in  the  use  of  these  two  forms. 

The  pronouns  of  the  first  form,  —  my,  our,  thy,  your,  her, 
and  their,  as  well  as  his  and  its,  are  used  with  nouns  as  pos- 
sessive modifiers.  We  say,  my  father,  our  school,  her  hat,  its 
population,  etc. 

149.  The  pronouns  of  the  second  form,  —  mine,  ours, 
thine,  yours,  hers,  theirs,  and  also  his,  are  used  alone,  that  is, 


104    USES  OF  POSSESSIVE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

they  are  not  followed  by  a  noun,  the  name  of  the  thing  pos- 
sessed. We  say,  ^^  Mine  is  too  heavy, ^'  when  the  object 
spoken  of  —  a  waterproof,  for  instance  —  is  well  known  by 
both  speaker  and  listener.  Or  we  say,  "  Her  writing  is  clear, 
tut  I  like  his  better,''  where  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  the 
noun  writing  after  his. 

In  the  first  sentence  mine  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is,  and 
in  the  second  his  is  the  object  of  the  verb  like.  We  even  find 
the  possessive  form  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition;  as, 
''  If  the  book  isn't  in  my  desk,  it  must  be  in  yours,^^ 

This  use  of  the  possessive  forms  mine,  his,  yours  as  subject 
or  object  is  idiomatic;  that  is,  it  is  peculiar  to  itself  in  gram- 
matical construction.  The  one  word  mine  really  means  my 
waterproof,  his  means  his  writing,  and  yours  means  your  desk. 
But  we  cannot  say  that  the  noun  is  understood  after  these 
pronouns,  for  we  cannot  supply  it  except  after  his.  It  is  not 
English  to  say  mine  waterproof  or  yours  desk.  Instead  of 
being  understood,  the  nouns  are  included  in  the  pronouns.  In 
speaking  of  such  pronouns  we  may  say  that  they  are  posses- 
sive in  form,  but  are  used  idiomatically  as  subject,  object,  etc. 

Note.  —  The  two  pronouns  mine  and  thine  are  sometimes  used  to 
modify  a  noun  expressed,  especially  in  poetry ;  as,  "Mine  eyes  have 
seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord."  It  is  worth  noting  that 
they  are  not  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound. 
We  do  not  say  mine  country^  nor  thine  liberty. 

150.  In  the  expression  "  a  friend  of  mine,"  we  have  in  the 
phrase  of  mine  a  "  double  possessive  "  (see  §  119) ;  for  the 
preposition  of  denotes  possession,  and  so  does  the  object,  the 
possessive  pronoun  mine.  In  this  use  there  is  no  noun  in- 
cluded in  the  pronoun.  Mine  does  not  mean  my  friends. 
It  means  me. 

Summary.  —  The  possessive  pronouns  mine,  ours,  thine, 
yours,  hers,  his,  and  theirs  may  be  used  idiomatically  without 


USES  OF  POSSESSIVE   PERSONAL  [PRONOUNS    105 

a  noun  to  modify.  These  pronouns  have  then  the  same  use 
that  the  noun  would  have  if  it  were  expressed. 

These  pronouns  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposi- 
tion oj  to  form  '^  double  possessives." 

Mine  and  ihine  are  sometimes  used  to  modify  nouns  ex- 
pressed, the  same  as  my  and  thy. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  possessive  pronouns  in  these  sen- 
tences, and  tell  their  use :  — 

1.  You  have  no  uncle  by  your  father's  side  or  mine. 

2.  To  thine  own  self  be  true. 

3.  The  people  of  Europe  did  not  know  that  America,  this  great 
country  of  ours,  was  in  the  world  at  all. 

4.  This  young  girl  came  to  Wisconsin  to  live  with  an  uncle  of 
hers  who  had  seven  sons  and  no  daughters. 

5.  Early  in  the  spring  I  had  begun  Bingo's  education.  Very 
shortly  afterward  he  began  mine. 

6.  Stand  !     The  ground's  your  own,  my  braves  ! 

7.  A  boy  who  lived  in  a  street  behind  ours  had  an  awkward 
three-wheeled  machine  that  he  called  a  "verlosophy." 

8.  He  will  say,  *'0  Love,  thine  eyes 
Build  the  shrine  my  soul  abides  in ; 
And  I  kneel  here  for  thy  grace." 

9.  The  boy  saw  big,  clutching  talons  outstretched  from  thick- 
feathered  legs,  while  round  eyes,  fiercely  gleaming,  flamed  upon  his 
in  passing,  as  they  searched  the  bush. 

10.  Time  hath  his  work  to  do,  and  we  have  ours. 

11.  The  sultan  ordered  that  the  princess's  attendants  should 
come  and  carry  the  trays  into  their  mistress's  apartment. 

j     12.    Susie  could  sew  like  a  woman,  and  her  patchwork  quilts  were 
masterpieces  of  their  kind.  Neither  mine  nor  Marty's  were  well  made. 

13.  Your  worthy  father  was  my  own  brother. 

14.  There  was  more  joy  in  this  little  brown,  battened  house  of  ours 
than  in  their  mansion  with  its  onyx  mantels  and  mahogany  doors. 

Are  the  verbs  in  sentences  1,  7,  10,  transitive  or  intransi- 
tive?    How  do  you  know? 

Account  for  the  punctuation  of  sentences  3,  6,  10,  12,  and 
14. 


106  COMPOUND   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS 

XLII.     COMPOUND    PERSONAL    PRONOUNS 

151.  Besides  the  personal  pronouns  that  have  already  been 
considered  there  are  certain  other  forms  such  as  myself  and 
ourselves^  formed  by  uniting  the  noun  self  to  a  singular  per- 
sonal pronoun,  and  the  noun  selves  to  a  plural  personal  pro- 
noun. 

These  are  called  compound  personal  pronouns. 

First  person  myself,  ourselves 

Second  person         thyself,  yourself,  yourselves 

Third  person  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves 

What  is  the  number  of  each  of  these  pronouns? 

152.  Compound  personal  pronouns  are  never  in  the  pos- 
sessive case.  They  never  change  their  form  for  case,  but  are 
in  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case  according  to  their 
use.     They  have  two  main  uses :  — 

(1)  A  compound  personal  pronoun  may  be  used  for  em- 
phasis, and  is  then  in  apposition  with  the  noun  it  makes 
emphatic ;  as,  '^  Caesar  himself  refused  the  crown."  The  pro- 
noun does  not  always  come  next  to  the  noun.  We  may  say, 
*'  Csesar  refused  the  crown  himself."  The  pronoun  is  in  the 
same  case  as  the  word  it  goes  with. 

(2)  It  may  be  used  reflexively,  that  is,  to  show  that  an 
action  comes  back  to  the  doer  of  it ;  as,  '^  I  scratched  myself 
with  a  pin."  Here  the  pronoun  is  object  of  a  verb,  hence  in 
the  objective  case. 

It  may  also  be  the  object  of  a  preposition;  as,  "I  was 
talking  to  myself." 

It  may  even  be  an  indirect  object;  as,  "  She  bought  her- 
self a  watch." 

Note.  —  The  compound  personal  pronoun  is  used  as  object  of  a 
preposition  in  some  familiar  idiomatic  expressions;  as,  "He  was 
beside  himself  with  joy."     *'She  was  sitting  all  by  herself.'' 


COMPOUND   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  107 

Summary.  —  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  my- 
self y  ourselves,  thyself,  yourself ^  yourselves ^  himself,  herself, 
itself,  and  themselves. 

They  are  commonly  used  for  two  purposes :  ■■ — 

(1)  For  emphasis,  (2)  reflexively. 

Exercise.  —  Select  and  parse  all  the  compound  personal 
pronouns  in  the  following  sentences.  Tell  their  person,  num- 
ber, case,  and  use. 

1.  Love  thyself  last. 

2.  The  men  folks,  having  worked  in  the  regular  hours,  lie  down 
and  rest,  stretch  themselves  idly  in  the  shade  at  nOon,  or  lounge 
about  after  supper. 

3.  Very  stupid  people  are  never  aware  of  their  stupidity  them- 
selves. 

4.  On  cold,  stormy  evenings  we  would  make  ourselves  toast  at 
the  sitting  room  fire,  and  eat  our  supper  on  the  little  sewing  table. 

5.  At  the  more  remote  end  of  the  island  Legrand  had  built 
himself  a  small  hut. 

6.  A  masterly  retreat  is  in  itself  a  victory. 

7.  Now  make  yourselves  at  home,  and  if  you  find  an  eel's  head, 
you  may  bring  it  to  me. 

8.  The  little  fox  ground  his  pearly  milk  teeth  into  the  mouse  with 
a  rush  of  inborn  savageness  that  must  have  surprised  even  himself. 

9.  They  were  returning  home  for  the  holidays  in  high  glee,  and 
promising  themselves  a  world  of  enjoyment. 

10.  Pity  for  his  gallant  horse,  rage  and  mortification  at  the  ridic- 
ulous plight  he  was  in,  anxiety  lest  he  should  be  late  for  the  tourna- 
ment, all  combined  to  make  the  baron  for  a  time  beside  himself. 

11.  Rivermouth  itself  is  full  of  hints  and  flavors  of  the  sea. 

12.  I  think  the  ugly  duckling  will  grow  up  strong,  and  be  able  to 
take  care  of  himself. 

13.  With  what  awe,  yet  with  what  pride,  did  I  look  forward  to  the 
day  when  I  myself  should  enter  the  doorway  of  the  high  school. 

14.  That  I  may  have  nobody  to  blame  but  myself  should  my 
marriage  turn  out  amiss,  I  will  choose  for  myself. 

15.  Although  the  English  and  we  ourselves  both  speak  the  same 
tongue,  we  do  not  speak  it  in  the  same  way. 

16.  Heaven  helps  those  who  help  themselves. 

Analyze  sentences  1,  3,  4,  6,  9,  11. 


108  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 

XLIII.     INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS 

153.  If  we  ask  the  question,  ^'  Who  killed  cock  robin?  " 
the  answer  may  be  the  declarative  sentence,  *'  The  sparrow 
killed  cock  robin/ ^  The  sentences  are  alike,  except  that  in 
the  declarative  sentence  the  sparrow  is  the  subject,  while  in  the 
interrogative  sentence  who  is  the  subject.  It  is  clear  then 
that  who  is  used  instead  of  the  noun  sparrow.  Who  is  there- 
fore a  pronoun,  and  since  it  is  used  in  asking  a  question,  we 
call  it  an  interrogative  pronoun. 

154.  The  other  interrogative  pronouns  are  whose,  whom, 
which,  and  what.  Whose  is  the  possessive  form  of  who,  and 
is  used,  like  other  possessive  pronouns,  to  modify  some  noun 
expressed  or  understood ;  as,  ^'  Whose  house  is  the  gray  stone 
mansion  on  the  corner?  " 

Whom  is  the  objective  form  of  who,  and  is  used  as  the  object 
of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition;  as,  "  Whom  did  he  marry?  " 
"To  whom  did  you  speak?" 

Note.  —  In  conversation,  the  preposition  governing  an  interroga- 
tive pronoun  is  often  placed  at  the  end  of  the  question ;  as,  ''Whom 
did  you  come  for  ?  " 

155.  What  is  used  when  we  inquire  for  the  name,  not  of  a 
person  but  of  a  thing ;  as,  "  What  did  he  have  on  his  head?  '' 

156.  Which  is  used  when  we  wish  to  know  the  particular 
one  of  several  persons  or  things ;  as,  "  Which  of  these  moon- 
stones do  you  like  best?  " 

157.  In  a  sentence  like  this,  "  Who  is  that  tall  man?  "  it 
may  be  difficult  at  first  thought  to  decide  whether  who  is  the 
subject  of  is  or  the  subjective  complement.  We  can  always 
tell  by  the  answer.  In  this  case  the  answer  is,  "  That  tall 
man  is  Joseph  Choate."  It  is  clear  that  Joseph  Choate  is  the 
subjective  complement,  hence  in  the  question  the  word  who, 
which  means  Joseph  Choate,  is  the  subjective  complement. 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  109 

Summary.  —  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  used  in  ask- 
ing a  question. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  what. 

Who  is  declined:  Nominative,  who;  possessive,  whose; 
objective,  whom. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  has  the  same  use  in  the  question 
that  the  word  which  takes  its  place  has  in  the  answer. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  interrogative  pronouns  in  these 
sentences.  Tell  the  use  and  case  of  each.  Determine  this 
by  answering  the  question  that  is  asked. 

Analyze  sentences  1,  4,  6,  8,  10,  11,  12,  15. 

1.  What  made  you  so  late  ? 

2.  Who  is  there  ? 

3.  Who  is  this  young  and  handsome  officer  now  entering  the 
door  of  the  tavern  ? 

4.  Whose  work  is  this  crayon  drawing  of  a  castle  in  the  moonlight  ? 

5.  What  do  you  mean  by  telling  me  such  nonsense  as  that  ? 

6.  What  may  so  bold  a  hunter  kill  ? 

7.  Who  should  know  better  than  I  ? 

8.  What  is  all  this  talk  about  the  Red  Flower  ? 

9.  What  is  gingerbread  ? 

10.  Whose  is  this  image  and  superscription  ? 

11.  With  whom  did  you  take  that  memorable  trip  on  Lake 
Superior  ? 

12.  Whose  little  girl  are  you,  with  your  rosy  cheeks  and  pretty 
red  hood  ? 

13.  Whom  did  the  superintendent  mean  when  he  announced  that 
the  youngest  pupil  in  the  grammar  school  had  made  one  hundred  in 
all  her  examinations  ? 

14.  Which  should  you  rather  be,  an  artist  or  a  poet  ? 

15.  Which  shall  I  take,  a  new  piano  or  a  trip  to  California  ? 

158.  A  common  error  in  the  use  of  interrogative  pronouns 
is  the  use  of  the  nominative  form  who  when  the  objective 
whom  is  required.  This  error  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
pronoun  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  is  sep- 


110  DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES 

arated  by  intervening  words  from  the  verb  or  the  preposition 
of  which  it  is  the  object,  as  in  these  sentences,  — 

Whom  did  the  ball  hit  ? 

Whom  do  you  sit  with  this  term  ? 

Exercise.  —  Supply  the  proper  pronoun,  who  or  whom,  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons :  — 

1.  does  the  baby  look  like  ? 

2.  do  I  see  in  the  orchard  ? 

3.  did  you  go  to  the  station  for  this  morning  ? 

4.  are  you  smiling  at,  George  ? 

5.  does  Mr.  Coburn  work  for  now  ? 

6.  will  open  this  window  for  me  ? 

7.  can  we  depend  upon  ? 

8.  is  that  child  playing  with  ? 

9.  have  you  invited  to  your  party  ? 

10.  can  keep  a  secret  ? 

XLIV.     DESCRIPTIVE    ADJECTIVES 

159.  We  learned  in  Lesson  IX  that  adjectives  are  used  (1) 
to  describe  objects,  (2)  to  point  them  out.  Adjectives  are 
therefore  divided  into  two  classes,  —  (1)  descriptive  adjec- 
tives, and  (2)  limiting  adjectives. 

160.  Descriptive  adjectives  tell  the  qualities  of  objects. 
They  are  very  useful  words,  for  they  enable  us  to  see  things 
with  the  imagination.  In  the  following  sentence  the  well- 
chosen  adjectives  make  us  feel  that  we  are  looking  into  the 
very  eyes  of  the  eagle,  —  '^  His  eyes,  clear,  direct,  unacquainted 
with  fear,  had  a  certain  hardness  in  their  vitreous  brilliancy, 
perhaps  by  reason  of  the  sharp  contrast  between  the  bright 
gold  iris  and  the  unfathomable  pupil.'' 

It  is  also  through  descriptive  adjectives  that  we  are  able 
to  identify  things  when  we  do  see  them.  After  reading  this 
sentence  we  could  pick  out  a  moose  calf  from  a  score  of  other 
animals,  —  ^'  The  moose  calf  is  uncouth,  to  be  sure,  with  his 


DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES  111 

high,  humped  fore  shoulders,  his  long,  lugubrious,  overhang- 
ing snout,  his  big  ears  set  low  on  his  big  head,  his  little  eyes 
crowded  back  toward  his  ears,  his  long,  big-knuckled  legs, 
and  the  spindling  lank  diminutiveness  of  his  hind  quarters.'' 

161.  One  variety  of  descriptive  adjective  is  the  adjective 
derived  from  a  proper  noun;  as,  Scotch  from  Scotland ^  French 
from  France,  and  Greek  from  Greece.  These  are  called  proper 
adjectives. 

Proper  adjectives  include  within  themselves  many  other 
adjectives.  If  we  speak  of  a  Scotch  collie,  a  French  cos- 
tume, or  a  Grecian  nose,  the  listener  gets  the  same  picture  that 
he  would  get  if  we  used  a  long  series  of  other  adjectives. 

162.  Many  proper  adjectives  may  be  used  as  proper  nouns, 
naming  a  class  of  people,  as  when  we  speak  of  the  Scotch, 
the  French,  the  Russians,  the  Americans. 

What  proper  noun  have  we  to  name  the  inhabitants  of 
Spain?  of  Turkey?  of  Denmark?  of  Sweden? 

What  proper  noun  have  we  to  designate  one  man  who  is  a 
native  of  England?  of  Scotland?  of  France?  of  China  ? 
Italy  ?  Germany  ?     What  is  the  plural  of  each  of  these  nouns  ? 

Exercise.  —  Supply  the  correct  word  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences:  — 

1.  Three  {French  or  Frenchmen)  spent  the  evening  at  the  house 

2.  The  {French  or  Frenchmen)  are  said  to  be  very  polite. 

'  3.    Why  are  so  many  {Scotch  or  Scotchmen)  captains  of  steam- 
ships? 

4.  Are  the  {Irish  or  Irishmen)  as  thrifty  as  the  Germans  ? 

5.  Are  there  many  {Welsh  or  Welshmen)  in  this  locality  ?  ^ 

Summary.  —  Descriptive  adjectives  are  those  which  tell 
the  qualities  of  objects. 

Proper  adjectives  are  those  derived  from  proper  nouns. 
They  always  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


112  DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES 

Exercise  1.  —  Write  a  list  of  the  proper  adjectives  derived 
from  the  following  proper  nouns.  Use  them  in  sentences  to 
modify  appropriate  nouns. 

Africa  Denmark  Italy  Paris 

Alaska  England  Japan      ,  Portugal 

Asia  Germany  Jew  Spain 

China  India  Malta  Sweden 

Christ  Ireland  Norway  Turkey 

Exercise  2.  —  In  the  following  sentences  select  all  the 
descriptive  adjectives  and  tell  what  objects  they  describe. 
In  so  far  as  you  can,  tell  what  qualities  the  adjectives  denote, 
as  color,  size,  form,  texture,  surface,  material,  nature,  etc. 
Account  for  the  punctuation  and  capitalization. 

1.  All  the  time  the  crocodile's  little  eyes  burned  Kke  coals  under 
the  heavy,  horny  eyelids  on  the  top  of  his  triangular  head,  as  he 
shoved  his  bloated  barrel  body  along  between  his  crutched  legs. 

2.  It  is  a  httle  village  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  founded 
by  some  of  the  Dutch  colonists  in  the  early  times  of  the  province. 

3.  The  dog  and  his  master  hunted  together,  fur-wrapped  boy 
and  savage,  long-haired,  narrow-eyed,  white-fanged,  yellow  brute. 

4.  We  always  smiled  to  hear  the  judge's  wife  talk  about  her 
Turkish  carpets,  her  httle  Chippendale  chairs,  her  Wedgwood 
china,  and  her  Persian  shawls. 

5.  This  crowded,  hvely,  and  interesting  thoroughfare  is  over 
two  miles  long. 

6.  In  queer  little  chdlets,  or  Swiss  huts,  live  the  people  whol 
attend  to  the  cattle,  and  make  butter  and  cheese. 

7.  The  split  and  weatherworn  rocks  of  the  gorge  had  been  used 
since  the  beginning  of  the  Jungle  by  the  Little  People  of  the  Rocks, 
—  the  busy,  furious,  black,  wild  bees  of  India. 

8.  At  every  stride  the  loose-hung,  wide-cleft,  spreading  hoofs 
of  the  moose  came  sharply  together  with  a  flat,  clacking  noise. 

9.  Out  comes  the  negro  pilot,  and  scrambles  up  on  deck. 

10.  Yonder  lies  a  Norwegian  ship,  with  her  sailors  climbing  the 
shrouds  like  so  many  monkeys. 

11.  Mowgli's  voice  could  be  heard  in  all  sorts  of  wet,  starhghted, 
blossoming  places,  helping  the  big  frogs  through  their  choruses,  or 
mocking  the  upside-down  owls  that  hoot  through  the  white  nights. 


LIMITING  ADJECTIVES  113 

XLV.     LIMITING   ADJECTIVES 

163.  Limiting  adjectives  are  those  which  merely  point  out 
an  object  without  teUing  any  quaHty  of  it.  The  most  useful 
limiting  adjectives  are  this^  that,  and  their  plural  forms  these 
and  those.  These  four  words  are  often  called  demonstrative 
adjectives. 

Some  limiting  adjectives  tell  number  or  amount,  but  in  a 
somewhat  indefinite  way,  as  allj  somej  several,  few,  much,  littlej 
more,  most. 

Some  tell  number  definitely,  as  one,  two,  six  hundred,  three 
million,  first,  second,  fiftieth. 

Number  words,  like  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  etc.,  are  often 
called  numeral  adjectives. 

164.  The  limiting  adjective  enough  may  precede  or  follow 
the  noun  it  modifies.  We  may  say  enough  butter  or  butter 
enough;  enough  time  or  time  enough. 

The  limiting  adjective  else  always  follows  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun that  it  modifies.  We  say  who  else,  nobody  else,  every- 
body else,  nothing  else. 

165.  When  the  interrogative  pronouns  which  and  what  are 
used  to  modify  a  noun,  as  in  which  picture?  what  city?  they 
cease  to  be  pronouns,  and  become  limiting  adjectives.  Since 
they  are  used  to  ask  questions,  we  call  them  interrogative 
adjectives. 

Note.  —  Which  and  whatj  when  used  as  adjectives,  are  sometimes 
called  pronominal  adjectives. 

166.  Three  very  common  words,  a,  an,  and  the,  are  classed 
with  limiting  adjectives.  They  are  called  articles.  The  is 
a  definite  article ;  an  and  a  are  the  indefinite  article.  A  is 
really  the  same  word  as  an,  but  when  it  is  used  before  a  word 
beginning  with  a  consonant  sound,  as  bicycle,  the  n  is  dropped 
for  the  sake  of  a  more  pleasing  sound. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  8 


114  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES 

167.  We  use  the  when  we  wish  to  specify  a  patticular  object, 
and  an  or  a  when  we  do  not  care  to  be  specific.  What  is  the 
difference  between  these  sentences? 

The  man  on  horseback  came  to  the  turn  in  the  road. 
A  man  on  horseback  came  to  a  turn  in  the  road. 

168.  We  use  the  before  a  singular  noun  to  designate  a  whole 
class  of  objects;  as,  "  The  oak  is  a  sturdy  tree/'  "  The  cow 
is  a  domestic  animal.^' 

169.  We  repeat  the  article  when  we  wish  to  denote  more 
than  one  person  or  thing.  What  is  the  difference  between 
these  pairs  of  sentences? 

(a)  The  secretary  and  treasurer  came  late. 

(6)  The  secretary  and  the  treasurer  came  together. 

(a)  I  saw  a  red  and  green  signal. 
(6)  I  saw  a  red  and  a  green  signal. 

170.  We  use  an  or  a  after  the  adjectives  many  and  sitch 
instead  of  before  them;  as,  many  a  man,  such  a  storm. 

171.  The  sentence,  "  I  hsLvefew  books,''  means  I  have  few 
compared  with  many;  but  the  sentence,  "I  have  a  few 
books,"  means  I  have  a  few  compared  with  none.  What  is 
the  difference  in  meaning  between  these  sentences? 

I  have  little  time  for  sewing. 
I  have  a  little  time  for  sewing. 

Summary.  —  Limiting  adjectives  are  those  which  merely 
point  out. 

Limiting  adjectives  that  denote  a  definite  number  are 
called  numerals. 

Which  and  what  may  be  used  as  interrogative  adjectives. 

The  articles  are  the,  an,  and  a. 

The  is  a  definite  article.     An  and  a  are  indefinite  articles. 


LIMITING   ADJECTIVES  115 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  limiting  adjectives,  including 
articles,  and  tell  what  they  modify.  Give  reasons  for  the 
articles  used. 

1.  What  business  brings  you  here  ? 

2.  In  that  same  village,  and  in  one  of  these  very  houses,  there 
lived,  many  years  since,  a  simple,  good-natured  fellow  of  the  name 
of  Rip  Van  Winkle. 

3.  Every  change  of  season,  everj^  change  of  weather,  indeed,  , 
every  hour  of  the  day,  produces  some  change  in  the  magical  hues 
and  shapes  of  these  mountains. 

4.  Which  fan  did  your  mother  carry  when  she  was  a  young  lady 
in  Maine  ? 

5.  Lobo  had  only  ^Ye  followers  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign. 

6.  What  excuse  shall  I  make  to  Dame  Van  Winkle  ? 

7.  The  dog  managed  so  that  each  fresh  rush  should  be  toward 
the  settlement. 

8.  No  wild  animal  dies  of  old  age. 

9.  Which  part  in  the  play  of  Julius  Ccesar  did  Edwin  Booth  take  ? 

10.  When  this  dog  of  marvelous  wind  saw  that  the  wolf  was  dead, 
he  gave  him  no  second  glance. 

11.  After  much  pains  on  my  behalf  and  many  pains  on  his. 
Bingo  learned  to  go  at  the  word  in  quest  of  our  old  yellow  cow. 

12.  I  only  ask  a  hut  of  stone, 

A  very  plain  brown  stone  will  do, 
That  I  may  call  my  own ; 
And  close  at  hand  is  such  a  one 
In  yonder  street  that  fronts  the  sun. 

13.  No  other  living,  thing  can  go  so  slow  as  a  boy  sent  on  an 
errand. 

14.  What  courage  can  withstand  the  ever-during  and  all-besetting  i 
terrors  of  a  woman's  tongue  ? 

Exercise  2.  —  Classify  the  words  which  and  what  in  the 
following  sentences  as  interrogative  pronouns  or  interrogative 
adjectives.  Where  they  are  pronouns,  tell  their  case.  Where 
they  are  adjectives,  tell  what  they  modify. 

1.  What  have  you  in  your  basket  ? 

2.  What  manner  of  man  is  this  ? 

^    Which  of  these  pictures  did  you  paint  ? 


116  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES 

4.  Which  is  it,  a  toadstool  or  a  mushroom  ? 

5.  Which  city  has  the  larger  population  ? 

6.  Which  boy  threw  the  stone  ? 

7.  What  stone  did  he  throw  ? 

8.  What  did  the  man  come  for  ? 

9.  What  do  you  want  ? 
10.  Which  will  you  take  ? 

XLVI.     COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES 

172.  Since  different  objects  may  possess  the  same  quality 
in  different  degrees,  there  must  be  some  means  of  telling  this. 
We  do  it  by  changing  the  form  of  adjectives.  For  instance, 
wool,  snow,  and  feathers  have  the  same  quality  of  softness, 
but  not  in  the  same  degree,  so  we  say  that  wool  is  soft^  snow 
is  softer y  and  feathers  are  softest.  '  This  change  in  the  adjec- 
tive soft  to  denote  the  degree  of  softness  is  called  comparison. 

173.  Comparison  is  a  property  of  adjectives.  There  are 
three  degrees  of  comparison,  —  the  positive,  the  compara- 
tive, and  the  superlative. 

The  positive  degree  denotes  the  simple  quality,  the  com- 
parative degree  denotes  more  or  less  of  this  quality,  and  the 
superlative  denotes  most  or  least  of  this  quality.  When  we 
give  the  three  forms  of  an  adjective,  we  are  said  to  compare 
it.  We  compare  bold  by  saying :  positive,  bold;  comparative, 
bolder;  superlative,  boldest;  or  positive,  bold;  comparative, 
less  bold;   superlative,  least  bold. 

174.  Comparison  is  denoted  in  three  ways :  — 

(1)  By  adding  the  suffixes  er  and  est.  These  are  added  to 
adjectives  of  one  syllable,  and  to  a  few  of  two  syllables;  as, 
Jinej  finer  J  finest;  lovely  ^  lovelier,  loveliest. 

(2)  By  prefixing  the  adverbs  more  and  most.  This  method 
is  used  in  comparing  longer  adjectives ;  as,  spacious y  more 
spacious  J  most  spacious;  disagreeable,  more  disagreeable,  mxtst 
disagreeable. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES  117 

(3)  By  prefixing  the  adverbs  less  and  least;  as,  roughs  less 
roughs  least  rough;  elegant j  less  elegant,  least  elegant.  This  is 
a  mode  of  comparing  adjectives  on  a  descending  scale  instead 
of  an  ascending  scale. 

175.  Some  adjectives  cannot  be  compared  at  all;  as, 
asleep,  dead,  correct,  round,  square,  principal.  Instead  of 
saying  rounder,  wq  may  say  more  nearly  round. 

176.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly.  The  fol- 
lowing are  examples :  — 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

good 

better 

best 

ill 

worse 

worst 

bad 

worse 

worst 

many 

more 

most 

much 

more 

most 

little 

less 

least 

far 

farther  or  further 

farthest  or  furthest 

Summary.  —  Comparison  in  an  adjective  is  a  change  of 
form  to  express  quality  or  quantity  in  different  degrees. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison,  —  positive,  com- 
parative, and  superlative. 

Short  adjectives  are  compared  by  adding  the  suffixes  er 
and  est. 

Longer  adjectives  are  compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most. 

Many  adjectives  may  be  compared  on  a  descending  scale 
by  prefixing  less  and  least. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  adjectives,  and  tell  the  kind  and 
the  degree  of  each.  Compare  each  adjective.  If  any  cannot 
be  compared,  state  that  fact. 

1.  There  was.  nothing  in  these  woods  bigger  than  a  weasel. 

2.  The  way  led  through  the  deepest  and  most  perilous  part  of 
the  swamp. 

3.  This  brother  was  younger  and  handsomer,  and  much  more 
amiable  than  William. 


118  COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES 

4.  As  she  grew  older,  she  became  less  exacting  and  more  toler- 
ant, less  certain  and  more  hopeful,  less  vigorous  in  body,  but  gentler 
in  manner  and  sweeter  in  spirit. 

5.  The  Hotel  de  Cluny  is  one  of  the  quaintest,  queerest,  pleas- 
antest,  and  most  homelike  places  we  are  likely  to  meet  with. 

6.  The  other  captive  was  of  a  more  restless  temperament, 
slenderer  in  build,  more  eager  and  alert  of  eye,  less  companionable 
of  mood. 

7.  Least  vague  of  all  was  the  terror  of  the  usually  unterrified , 
',  weasel.  / 
^       8.    Those  men  are  most  apt  to  be  obsequious  and  conciliating 

abroad,  who  are  under  the  discipline  of  shrews  at  home. 

9.  At  the  least  flourish  of  a  broomstick  or  a  ladle.  Wolf  would 
fly  to  the  door  with  yelping  precipitation. 

10.  The  lynx  was  smaller  than  her  mate,  somewhat  browner  in 
hue,  leaner,  and  of  a  peculiarly  malignant  expression. 

11.  The  women  of  the  village  used  to  employ  Rip  to  do  such  little 
odd  jobs  as  their  less  obliging  husbands  would  not  do  for  them. 

12.  The  singing  master's  hair  was  a  little  longer,  his  hands  were 
a  little  whiter,  his  shoes  a  little  thinner,  his  manner  a  trifle  more 
polished  than  that  of  his  soberer  mates. 

Tell  the  use  of  adjectives  in  sentences  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  12. 

177.   Sometimes  errors  are  made  in  the  use  of  adjectives. 

The  comparative  degree  should  be  used  in  comparing  two 
objects,  the  superlative  in  comparing  more  than  two.  If 
only  two  roads  are  open  to  us,  we  ought  to  say  that  we  shall 
take  the  shorter. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  proper  adjective  for  each  of  these 
'sentences,  and  give  your  reasons :  — 

1.  Which  would  be  the  {cheapest  or  cheaper)  route  —  by  water 
or  by  rail  ? 

2.  Prince  is  the  (swifter  or  swiftest)  horse,  but  Pete  is  the  (stronger 
or  strongest). 

3.  Which  is  the  (higher  or  highest)  —  the  Eiffel  Tower  or  the 
Washington  Monument  ? 

4.  Of  the  two  leading  candidates,  Wilson  and  Harmon,  which  is 
(more  likely  or  most  likely)  to  be  nominated  ? 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  119 

Sometimes  an  ill-chosen  adjective  is  used  after  the  verb 
feel.  The  sentence,  "  I  feel  good,^^  is  correct  only  when  it 
means  "  I  feel  righteous/'  while  '^  I  feel  well/^  means  *'  I  am 
in  good  health/'  In  this  sentence  well  is  an  adjective  mean- 
ing the  opposite  of  sick. 

Note.  —  We  also  have  the  adverb  wellj  denoting  manner,  as  in 
the  sentence,  "LaFollette  spoke  welV 

The  sentence,  '*  Rufus  looks  good/^  is  correct  when  we 
mean  that  Rufus  looks  as  if  he  were  a  good  man ;  but  we 
should  say,  "Rufus  looks  well  (not  good)  in  gray."  Here 
well  is  an  adjective  meaning  pleasing  or  acceptable. 

The  limiting  adjectives  this  and  these  should  not  be  followed 
by  the  word  here.  We  point  out  sufficiently  when  we  say 
this  book,  these  books. 

The  personal  pronoun  them  should  never  be  used  for  the 
limiting  adjective  those.  We  should  say  those  horses,  those 
wagons,  those  tents. 

If  we  modify  a  noun  by  the  limiting  adjective  each,  every, 
either,  neither,  or  no,  we  must  use  a  singular  pronoun  to  repre- 
sent that  noun ;  as,  — 

Each  man  took  his  appointed  place. 
Every  girl  made  her  own  costume. 
Neither  man  lost  his  job. 

Exercise.  —  Supply  the  correct  pronoun  in  each  of  these 
sentences :  — 

Note.  —  The  masculine  pronoun  should  be  used  when  there  is  no 
word  in  the  sentence  that  indicates  whether  the  male  or  the  female 
sex  is  referred  to. 

1.  Everybody  came  and  brought appetite. 

2.  Each  lady  contributed  whatever chose. 

3.  No  young  person  can  afford  to  waste time. 

4.  Neither  doctor  will  give assistance. 

5.  No  day  is  without disappointments. 


120  REVIEW   OF  ADJECTIVES 

6.  If  either  man  calls,  tell that  I  am  busy. 

7.  Every  girl  in  the  class  said  that did  not  understand  the 

lesson. 

8.  Every  boy  wishes  that might  be  president. 

9.  No  soldier  acknowledged  that was  afraid. 

10.  Neither  chair  is  in place. 

XLVII.     REVIEW    OF    ADJECTIVES 

178.  In  our  study  of  adjectives  in  Lessons  IX,  XXVI, 
XXXIII,  XXXVII,  XUV,  XLV,  and  XLVI  we  have 
learned  that  adjectives  may  be  classified  as  limiting  adjec- 
tives and  descriptive  adjectives;  that  which  and  what 
are  interrogative  adjectives;  that  adjectives  have  the 
property  of  comparison;  and  that  adjectives  may  be 
used  in  four  different  ways:  (1)  before  a  noun  to  modify 
that  noun ;  (2)  after  a  noun  as  an  appositive  modifier ;  (3)  as 
a  subjective  complement  of  certain  intransitive  verbs,  and 
(4)  as  the  objective  complement  of  certain  transitive 
verbs. 

Exercise.  —  Make  an  outline  of  the  subject.  Adjectives,  to 
recite  from  in  class.  Illustrate  each  point  you  make  with  a 
good  sentence  of  your  own  composition. 

179.  When  we  parse  an  adjective,  we  should  tell :  — 

(1)  Its  class,  —  descriptive,  limiting,  or  interrogative. 

(2)  Its  degree  (if  it  admits  of  comparison). 

(3)  Its  use,  and  what  it  modifies. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  each  adjective  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

1.  The  puppy  grew  bigger  and  clumsier  each  day.  His  most 
friendly  overtures  to  the  cat  were  wholly  misunderstood. 

2.  Paris  is  an  immense  city,  full  of  broad  and  handsome  streets, 
magnificent  buildings,  grand  open  places  with  fountains  and  statues, 
great  public  gardens  and  parks  free  to  everybody. 

3.  His  gray  eyes,  clear  and  kind,  flashed  like  fire  when  he  spoke 
of  his  adventures. 


ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS  121 

4.  Which  picture  shall  we  hang  between  these  two  front  win- 
dows—  the  little  Nydia  or  this  pretty  landscape? 

5.  It  was  clear  that  the  whelps  of  last  spring  had  betaken  them- 
selves to  other  and  safer  hunting  grounds. 

6.  For  a  moment  the  boy  felt  afraid  —  afraid  in  his  own  woods. 

7.  Below  us  lies  a  lake,  clear  and  cold,  whereon  fairies  might 
launch  their  airy  shallops. 

8.  Jo  Calone  threw  down  his  saddle  on  the  dusty  ground,  and 
turned  his  horses  loose. 

9.  What  fun  the  rabbits  must  have  been  having  ! 

10.  The  full  moon  of  October,  deep  orange  in  a  clear,  deep  sky, 
hung  large  and  somewhat  distorted  just  over  the  wooded  hills. 

11.  For  a  long  time  pain  and  hunger  kept  me  awake. 

12.  How  sweet  and  demure  those  girls  looked  ! 

13.  Do  you  suppose  that  any  old  Roman  ever  had  twenty-four 
different  kinds  of  pie  at  one  dinner  ? 

14.  There  was  something  in  their  cries  that  sounded  strangely 
wild  and  fierce. 

15.  The  cardinal  bird  drew  herself  up  very  straight,  raised  her 
crest,  and  opened  her  big  beak. 

16.  What  harm  can  a  naked  frog  do  us  ? 

17.  Land  in  London  is  so  valuable  that  a  single  acre  of  it  has  been 
sold  for  four  and  a  half  million  dollars. 

18.  The  old  servant  made  our  lives  miserable  by  her  cantanker- 
ous ways. 

XLVIII.     ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS 

180.  When  we  say,  "This  ring  was  my  mother^s,"  we  use  the 
word  this  as  an  adj  ective  modifying  the  noun  ring.  When  we 
say,  "  This  was  my  mother's  ring,"  we  use  the  one  word  this 
in  place  of  this  ring  as  subject  of  the  sentence,  hence  this  is  no 
longer  an  adjective,  but  has  become  a  pronoun.  Since  its  ordi- 
nary use  is  that  of  an  adjective,  we  call  it  an  adjective  pronoun. 

Many  hmiting  adjectives  may  be  used  as  pronouns.  We 
often  make  such  sentences  as  these :  — 

Few  shall  part  where  many  meet. 
If  honor  is  lost,  then  all  is  lost. 

When  two  or  three  are  gathered  together  in  Thy  name,  Thou  wilt 
grant  their  requests. 


122  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS 

181.  The  commonest  adjective  pronouns  are  ally  any,  each, 
either,  few,  first,  former,  last,  little,  many,  more,  most,  much, 
neither,  one,  other,  several,  some,  this,  that,  these,  those. 

Make  sentences  containing  five  of  these  adjective  pronouns. 


182. 

clined. 

Two  adjective 

pronouns, 

one 

and  other, 

may 

be  de- 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

Nom, 

one 

ones 

other 

Others 

Poss. 

one's 

ones* 

other's 

others' 

Obj, 

one 

ones 

other 

others 

Sentences  like  these  are  common :  — 

One  sometimes  tires  of  one's  occupation. 
Each  envied  the  other's  good  fortune. 

The  two  adjective  pronouns,  one  and  other,  may  be  modi- 
fied by  adjectives;  as,  '^  Many  others  came,''  ''The  green 
ones  are  the  prettiest.'' 

Each  other  and  one  another,  though  consisting  of  two  words, 
may  be  considered  as  one  adjective  pronoun. 

183.  Some  adjective  pronouns  may  be  modified  by  arti- 
cles. We  say,  ''  The  last  is  the  best  of  all  the  game,"  ''  I  like 
gooseberries,  so  I  picked  a  fewJ^ 

Summary.  —  An  adjective  pronoun  is  a  limiting  adjective 
used  in  place  of  a  noun. 

The  adjective  pronouns  one  and  other  may  be  declined. 
Some  adjective  pronouns  may  be  modified  by  adjectives. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  adjective  pronouns  in  these  sen- 
tences. Tell  the  use  and  case  of  each.  Tell  the  noun  that 
each  pronoun  stands  for.  Supply  this  noun  where  you  can. 
What  part  of  speech  does  the  adjective  pronoun  become  then? 

1.  This  is  the  story  of  a  bad  boy. 

2.  Many  of  the  protozoa  are  very  beautiful.  Some  build  shells 
for  themselves  of  strange  and  curious  shapes. 


VERBS:    TENSE  123 

3.  The  ham  turned  out  to  be  a  very  remarkable  one. 

4.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  styles  of  1860  and 
1900.  The  former  favored  Paisley  shawls  and  flounced  skirts, 
the  latter  sanctioned  the  tailor-made  suit  and  the  shirt  waist. 

5.  A  little  made  us  very  happy  once. 

6.  From  time  to  time  one  or  another  of  the  leaping  rabbits  would 
take  himself  off  through  the  fir  trees,  while  others  continued  to 
arrive  along  the  moonlight  trails. 

7.  All  is  of  God  that  is  or  is  to  be. 

8.  A  bluejay  and  a  red  squirrel  were  loudly  berating  each  other 
for  stealing. 

9.  The  convenience  of  resting  one's  self  in  the  open  air  is  one 
of  the  comforts  of  Paris. 

10.  Each  of  these  was  a  wolf  of  renown;  most  of  them  were 
above  the  ordinary  size ;  one  in  particular,  the  second  in  com- 
mand, was  a  veritable  giant.  Several  of  the  band  were  especially 
noted.  One  of  them  was  a  beautiful  white  wolf,  that  the  Mexicans 
called  Blanca ;  this  was  supposed  to  be  a  female,  possibly  Lobo's 
mate.     Another  was  a  yellow  wolf  of  remarkable  swiftness. 

11.  It  is  not  easy  to  change  one's  life  all  in  a  minute. 

12.  It  is  a  blessed  fact  that  one's  own  home  is  the  hub  of  the 
universe. 

13.  Every  one  said  that  I  was  a  tomboy. 

14.  Some  wore  short  doublets,  others  jerkins,  with  long  knives 
in  their  belts,  and  most  of  them  had  enormous  breeches  of  similar 
style  with  that  of  the  guide's. 

15.  The  years  hurry  onward,  treading  in  their  haste  on  one 
another's  heels. 

What  noun  is  understood  after  guldens  in  sentence  14  ? 

XLIX.     VERBS:    TENSE 

184.  Three  very  common  words  are  yesterday,  to-day,  and 
to-morrow.  The  word  yesterday  refers  to  time  that  has  gone, 
or  past  time;  to-day  refers  to  time  that  now  is,  or  present 
time ;  and  to-morrow  refers  to  time  that  is  to  come,  or  future 
time. 

185.  Every  event  takes  place  in  time,  and  so  when  we  tell 
of  the  occurrence  of  any  event,  we  must  have  some  way  of 


124  VERBS:    TENSE 

making  clear  whether  that  event  took  place  in  the  past,  or 
is  taking  place  in  the  present,  or  will  take  place  in  the  future. 
Of  course,  we  might  tell  this  by  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases, 
but  we  have  a  very  much  better  way,  — we  tell  it  by  the  form 
of  the  verb  we  use.  What  time  do  we  think  of  when  we  see 
the  verbs  eats,  works,  plays,  sleeps?  What  time  is  told  by 
the  verbs  a^6,  worked,  played,  slept?  What  change  is  made 
in  the  form  of  the  two  sets  of  verbs  ?  What  time  is  told  by 
the  verbs  will  eat,  will  work,  will  play,  will  sleep  ? 

186.  In  the  last  group  of  verbs,  where  each  verb  consists  of 
two  words,  it  is  the  first  word  will  that  denotes  future  time. 
Such  a  word  is  called  a  helping  word,  or  auxiliary  verb. 

187.  The  change  in  the  form  of  a  verb  to  denote  time  is 
called  tense. 

188.  Tense  is  a  property  of  all  verbs.  It  is  evident  that 
there  must  be  three  tenses,  —  present,  past,  and  future,  as 
shown  in  the  three  sets  of  verbs  that  have  just  been  exam- 
ined.    These  are  called  primary  tenses. 

There  are  three  other  tenses,  called  secondary  tenses. 
We  may  say,  "  I  have  eaten  my  supper,''  '^  I  had  eaten  my 
supper,"  "  I  shall  have  eaten  my  supper.''  These  verbs  call 
attention  not  so  much  to  the  time  of  the  action  as  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  completed,  or  perfected. 

Have  eaten  means  that  a  past  action  is  completed  at  the 
present  time.     This  form  is  called  the  present  perfect  tense. 

Had  eaten  means  that  a  past  action  was  completed  before 
some  particular  past  time.  This  form  is  called  the  past 
perfect  tense. 

Shall  have  eaten  means  that  an  action  will  be  completed 
before  some  definite  future  time.  This  is  called  the  future 
perfect  tense. 

Summary.  —  Tense  is  that  property  of  a  verb  which  de- 
notes the  time  of  an  action  or  an  event. 


VERBS:   TENSE  125 

There  are  six  tenses :  — 

(1)  The  present  tense  denotes  that  an  action  is  taking  place. 
It  usually  consists  of  one  word,  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb. 

(2)  The  past  tense  denotes  thac  an  action  did  take  place. 
It  usually  consists  of  one  word. 

(3)  The  future  tense  denotes  that  an  action  will  take 
place.  It  consists  of  two  words,  one  of  which  is  the  auxiUary 
shall  or  will, 

(4)  The  present  perfect  tense  denotes  that  a  past  action^ 
is  now  completed.  It  consists  of  two  words,  one  of  which  is 
the.  auxiliary  have  or  has. 

(5)  The  past  perfect  tense  denotes  that  a  past  action  was 
completed  before  a  particular  past  time.  It  consists  of  two 
words,  one  of  which  is  the  auxiliary  had. 

(6)  The  future  perfect  tense  denotes  that  a  future  action 
will  be  completed  before  a  particular  future  time.  It  con- 
sists of  three  words,  one  of  which  is  the  auxiliary  have^  and 
another  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will. 

Notes.  —  1.  The  present  tense  is  used  also  to  denote  (1)  that  some- 
thing is  true  at  all  times;  as  "Waste  makes  want,"  and  (2)  that 
something  occurs  habitually  ;  as,  *'  She  teaches  school." 

2.  When  a  predicate  consists  of  a  series  of  verbs  in  the  same  tense, 
the  auxiliary  is  usually  expressed  only  with  the  first  verb.  In  the 
sentence,  "Now  that  he  has  eaten  and  slept,  he  is  ready  for  work," 
the  second  verb  is  has  slept,  with  the  auxiliary  understood. 

189.  A  common  error  is  the  use  of  the  present  perfect 
tense  for  the  past  tense.  We  say,  "  I  have  been  in  Florida 
several  times, '^  because  we  mean  several  times  before  now; 
but  we  say,  ^'I  was  in  Florida  last  year,'^  because  we  mean 
that  our  being  there  occurred  in  past  time  with  no  reference 
whatever  to  the  present.  If  we  are  still  in  Florida  we  may 
say,  '*  I  have  been  in  Florida  a  long  time  '\-  but  if  we  are  no 
longer  in  Florida  we  say,  ''  I  was  in  Florida  a  long  time.^^ 


126  VERBS:    TENSE 

Exercise  1.  —  Justify  the  use  of  the  past  or  the  present 
perfect  tense  in  each  of  these  sentences:  — 

1.  I  learned  the  poem  last  evening. 

2.  I  have  learned  the  poem  already. 

3.  I  bought  my  hat  at  Stone's. 

4.  I  have  bought  a  new  spring  hat. 

5.  I  came  home  last  Monday. 

6.  I  have  come  to  stay  a  week. 

7.  I  tried  my  skates  this  afternoon. 

8.  I  haven't  tried  my  new  skates. 

9.  I  have  walked  ever  since  sunrise. 

10.  I  walked  from  sunrise  until  noon. 

11.  I  spoke  to  the  President  this  morning. 

12.  I  have  never  spoken  to  the  President. 

13.  I  spoke  to  him  twice  when  I  was  in  Washington. 

14.  I  have  spoken  to  him  several  times. 

Exercise  2.  —  Using  the  subject  /,  form  the  six  tenses  of 
the  following  verbs.  Consult  the  dictionary  for  forms  of 
which  you  are  not  sure. 

break  buy  come  leave  run  see  turn 

bring  go  drive  love  take  sing         wait 

Exercise  3.  —  Select  all  the  verbs  in  these  sentences,  and 
tell  the  tense  of  each:  — 

1.  Trees  wave,  flowers  bloom,  and  bright-winged  birds  flit  from 
palm  to  cedar. 

2.  The  lynx  turned  to  the  right,  along  a  well-wOrn  trail,  ran  up  a 
tree,  descended  hastily,  and  glided  away  among  the  thickets. 

3.  Tommy  and  I  had  played  together  till  five  o'clock  that 
Saturday  afternoon. 

4.  The  children  thought,  "how  long  the  vacation  will  be!"  but 
the  mother  thought,  '*  how  soon  it  will  have  come  and  gone." 

5.  He  who  knows  nothing  fears  nothing. 

6.  The  duck  had  never  seen  a  guinea  egg  before  in  all  her  life. 

7.  The  boy  comes  nearer  to  perpetual  motion  thatn  anything 
else  in  nature. 

8.  Nobody  has  yet  discovered  how  many  grasshoppers  a  turkey 
will  hold. 


THE  INDICATIVE  MODE  127 

^  9.    I  have  made  no  addition  to  my  cabinet  since  we  met. 

10.  The  big  black  pots  swinging  from  the  cranes  had  bubbled  and 
gurgled  and  sent  out  puffs  of  appetizing  steam. 

11.  "How  many  pieces  shall  I  cut  this  pie  into  ?"  said  she. 

12.  I  have  seen  wild  bees  and  butterflies  feeding  at  a  height  of 
13,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

13.  You  shall  go  to  bed,  and  I  will  remain  with  you  a  few  days 
until  you  get  over  this  fever. 

14.  The  daisies  have  shut  up  their  sleepy  red  eyes. 

Analyze  sentences  2,  3,  6,  9,  14. 

L.     THE    INDICATIVE    MODE 

190.  Each  of  the  six  verb  forms  that  we  have  been  study- 
ing, —  I  eat  J  I  ate  J  I  shall  eat,  I  have  eaten,  I  had  eaten,  I  shall 
have  eaten,  —  is  used  in  the  statement  of  a  fact,  and  is  said 
to  be  in  the  indicative  mode. 

Mode  is  that  property  of  a  verb  which  denotes  the  manner 
of  an  assertion. 

The  indicative  mode  is  used  in  the  statement  of  a  fact. 

191.  In  some  tenses  there  is  a  sHght  difference  between  the 
singular  and  the  plural  form  of  a  verb,  hence  verbs  are  said 
to  have  the  property  of  number.  We  should  always  use  the 
verb  form  that  agrees  with  the  number  of  the  subject.  In 
the  present  tense,  for  example,  we  say  in  the  singular,  '*  The 
man  goes; ''  and  in  the  plural,  ''  The  men  go.^^ 

192.  In  some  tenses  there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  form 
of  the  verb  to  denote  person,  hence  verbs  are  said  to  have  the 
property  of  person.  In  the  present  perfect  tense,  we  say  in 
the  first  person,  "I  have  gone;'^  and  in  the  third  person, 
**  He  has  gone." 

193.  When  we  give  all  the  forms  of  a  verb  in  the  three  per- 
sons and  the  two  numbers  of  each  tense,  we  are  said  to  con- 
jugate the  verb. 


128 


THE  INDICATIVE  MODE 


194.   Conjugation  of  the  verb  be  in  the  indicative  mode:  — 


Present  Tense  Past  Tense 

Singular                          Plural  Singular 

I  am                           we  are  I  was 

thou  art                     you  are  thou  wast 

he  is                            they  are  he  was 


Plural 
we  were 
you  were 
they  were 


Future  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  shall  be  we  shall  be 

thou  wilt  be  you  will  be 

he  will  be  they  will  be 


Present  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  have  been         we  have  been 
thou  hast  been    you  have  been 
he  has  been         they  have  been 


Past  Perfect  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

I  had  been  we  had  been 

thou  hadst  been       you  had  been 

he  had  been  they  had  been 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

I  shall  have  been  we  shall  have  been 

thou  wilt  have  been  you  will  have  been 

he  will  have  been  they  will  have  been 


195.   Conjugation  of  see  in  the  indicative  mode:  — 


Present  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  see  we  see 

thou  seest  you  see 

he  sees  they  see 


Past  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

I  saw  we  saw 

thou  sawest  you  saw 

he  saw  they  saw 


Future  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

T  shall  see  we  shall  see 

thou  wilt  see  you  will  see 


he  will  see 


Present  Perfect  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

I  have  seen  we  have  seen 

thou  hast  seen     you  have  seen 


they  will  see        he  has  seen 


they  have  seen 


INTERROGATIVE  FORM  129 

Past  Perfect  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

I  had  seen  we  had  seen 

thou  hadst  seen  you  had  seen 

he  had  seen  they  had  seen 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

I  shall  have  seen  we  shall  have  seen 

thou  wilt  have  seen  you  will  have  seen 

he  will  have  seen  they  will  have  seen 

Exercise.  —  Conjugate  the  verbs  in  Exercise  2,  p.  126,  in 
the  six  tenses  of  the  Indicative  Mode. 

LI.     THE    INTERROGATIVE    FORM    OF    THE 
INDICATIVE    MODE 

196.  The  indicative  mode  is  used  not  only  in  stating  facts, 
but  also  in  asking  questions.  In  interrogative  sentences  the 
order  of  the  words  that  make  up  the  verb  is  changed  somewhat. 
In  a  simple  statement  we  say,  I  have  paid.  In  a  question  we 
say,  Have  I  paid?  putting  the  auxiliary  before  the  subject. 

197.  Conjugation  of  he  in  the  indicative  mode,  interroga- 
tive form: — 

Present  Tense  Past  Tense 

am  I  are  we  was  I  were  we 

art  thou  are  you  wast  thou  were  j^ou 

is  he  are  they  was  he  were  they 

Future  Tense  Present  Perfect  Tense 

shall  I  be  shall  we  be  have  I  been         have  we  been 

wilt  thou  be  will  you  be  hast  thou  been    have  you  been 

will  he  be  will  they  be  has  he  been         have  they  been 

Past  Perfect  Tense 
had  I  been  had  we  been 

hadst  thou  been  had  you  been 

had  he  been  had  they  been 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  —  9 


130  INTERROGATIVE  FORM 

Future  Perfect  Tense 
shaU  I  have  been  shall  we  have  been 

wilt  thou  have  been  will  you  have  been 

will  he  have  been  will  they  have  been 

198.  When  we  use  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  any  verb 
except  be  for  asking  questions,  we  do  not  say  sings  she?  or 
sang  she?  but  does  she  sing?  did  she  sing?  that  is,  we  use  the 
auxiliaries  do  and  did. 

Conjugate  the  verb  see  in  the  indicative  mode,  interroga- 
tive form. 

Exercise.  —  Conjugate  the  verbs  in  Exercise  2,  p.  126,  in 
the  indicative  mode,  interrogative  form. 

199.  The  use  of  the  negative  word  not  after  a  verb  gives 
rise  to  many  contractions  which  are  permissible  in  familiar 
conversation.  The  contractions  for  which  incorrect  forms 
are  often  used  are  the  following :  — 

isn't  aren't  don't  haven't 

wasn't  weren't  doesn't  hasn't 

There  is  no  contraction  for  am  not;  the  word  ainH  is  in- 
correct. 

Contractions  are  oftenest  misused  in  questions.  Notice 
the  following  correct  forms :  — 

Isn't  it  too  bad  ?  Weren't  they  slow  ? 

Isn't  he  tall  ?  Don't  you  believe  me  ? 

Isn't  she  pretty  ?  Doesn't  it  hurt  ? 

Aren't  you  cold  ?  Doesn't  she  work  hard  ? 

Aren't  they  coming  ?  Doesn't  he  like  it  ? 

Wasn't  it  long  ?  Haven't  you  been  there  ? 

Weren't  you  there  ?  Hasn't  he  any  friends  ? 

We  should  be  careful  never  to  say,  you  was  or  was  you; 
for  the  pronoun  you^  even  when  it  denotes  one  person,  is 
followed  by  a  verb  in  the  plural  form.  We  should  say, 
^^You  were  late,"  "Were  you  late?"     ^'Weren't  you  late?" 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOl^E  131 

LII.     THE    SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE 

200.  When  we  say,  "  If  I  were  you,  I  should  be  a  doctor,^' 
we  have  a  dependent  proposition,  //  I  were  you,  which  states 
not  a  fact,  but  an  imaginary  condition.  This  condition  is,. 
moreover,  directly  contrary  to  fact,  for  I  am  not  you,  and 
never  can  be.  The  verb  used  in  expressing  such  a  condition 
is  said  to  be  in  the  subjunctive  mode. 

201.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  found  not  only  in  dependent 
propositions  introduced  by  ^/*,  but  in  those  introduced  by 
lest,  whether,  although,  etc. 

(a)  Be  quiet  lest  the  baby  wake, 

(b)  We  cannot  tell  whether  he  he  the  rightful  heir  or  not. 

(c)  Though  he  wait  long,  yet  he  will  come  at  last. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  subjunctive  mode  is  used  to 
express  doubt  or  uncertainty,  or  something  imagined  but 
not  actually  realized. 

202.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  so  named  because  it  is  found 
principally  in  dependent,  or  subjoined  propositions.  It  is, 
however,  found  also  in  independent  propositions  expressing  a 
wish ;   as,  "  Long  live  the  King !  ^'     '^  God  bless  thee,  dear ! '' 

203.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  the  statement  of 
something  that  is  uncertain ;  as,  ^^  If  he  come  in  time,  dinner 
will  be  served  at  six.''  This  sentence  means  that  his  coming 
is  to  take  place  in  the  future,  hence  we  cannot  tell  whether 
it  will  be  a  fact  or  not.  In  the  sentence,  '^  If  he  comes  in 
time,  dinner  is  served  at  six,''  we  use  the  indicative  mode 
because  we  mean  that  sometimes  he  really  does  come  in  time. 

204.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  little  used,  especially  in 
conversation ;  but  we  find  many  instances  of  it  in  the  Bible 
and  in  the  works  of  Shakespeare,  hence  we  should  understand 
its   meaning.     Nowadays,    except    to    express    a   wish,    as, 


132 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 


''  Heaven  defend  thee ! ''  and  to  express  a  condition  contrary 
to  fact,  as,  ^^  If  the  ring  were  gold,  it  would  not  discolor  your 
finger,"  most  persons  use  the  indicative  mode  or  some  other 
verb  phrase.  Instead  of  saying,  '^  If  to-morrow  he  fair," 
most  persons  say,  "  If  to-morrow  is  fair,"  or  ^'  If  to-morrow 
should  he  fair."     (See  Lesson  LXI.) 

205.  There  are  four  tenses  in  the  subjunctive  mode,  but 
the  forms  do  not  differ  greatly  from  those  of  the  indicative 
mode.     There  is  no  interrogative  form. 

\    V  .  .    .  . 

206.  Conjugation  of  he  in  the  subjunctive  mode:  — 

Present  Tense  Past  Tense 

I  be  we  be  I  were  we  were 

you  be  you  be  thou  were  you  were 

he  be  they  be  he  were  they  were 

•j;     Pbesent  Perfect  Tense  Past  Perfect  Tense 

I  have  been  we  have  been  I  had  been  we  had  been 

thou  have  been    you  have  been  thou  had  been         you  had  been 

he  have  been        they  have  been  he  had  been  they  had  been 

207.  Conjugation  of  see  in  the  subjunctive  mode:  — 


Pres] 

E3NT  Tense 

Past  Tense 

I  see 

we  see 

I  saw                            we  saw 

thou  see 

you  see 

thou  saw                     you  saw 

he  see 

they  see 

he  saw                        they  saw 

Present  Perfect  Tense  Past  Perfect  Tense 

I  have  seen  we  have  seen  I  had  seen  we  had  seen 

thou  have  seen     you  have  seen  thou  had  seen  you  had  seen 

he  have  seen         they  have  seen  he  had  seen  they  had  seen 


Summary. —  The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  an  exclama- 
tive  sentence  to  express  a  wish,  and  in  a  dependent  proposi- 
tion to  express  something  contrary  to  fact  or  something 
uncertain. 


THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE  133 

The  subjunctive  mode  has  no  future  tenses. 

Exercise  1.  —  Conjugate  all  the  verbs  in  Exercise  2,  p.  126, 
in  the  subjunctive  mode. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  verbs  in  the  subjunctive  mod^ 
in  these  sentences,  and  tell  why  that  mode  is  used :  — 

1.  Misery  loves  company  —  even  though  it  be  very  poor  com- 
pany. 

2.  If  the  weather  be  fine,  there  breaks  upon  the  eye,  as  we  rise 
higher  and  higher,  a  succession  of  those  views  of  mountain,  lake 
and  forest,  which  can  be  had  only  from  an  elevated  position.         > 

3.  The  Lord  be  between  thee  and  me  when  we  are  absent  one 
from  the  other. 

4.  If  the  whole  world  were  put  into  one  scale  and  my  mother 
into  the  other,  the  world  could  not  outweigh  her. 

5.  If  a  boy  were  obliged  to  work  at  nut  gathering  in  order  to 
procure  food  for  the  family,  he  would  find  it  very  irksome. 

6.  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee,  ^ 
Friend  of  my  better  days  ! 

7.  John  convinces  himself  that  he  must  watch  the  hawk  lest  it 
pounce  upon  the  chicken. 

8.  If  chicadee  seem  preoccupied  or  absorbed,  you  may  know  that 
he  is  building  a  nest. 

9.  If  I  were  a  millionaire,  city  life  would  be  agreeable  enough, 
for  I  could  always  get  away  from  it. 

10.  And  Death,  whenever  he  come  to  me. 
Shall  come  on  the  wide,  unbounded  sea. 

11.  In  their  hands  they  shall  bear  thee  up,  lest  at  any  time  thou 
dash  thy  foot  against  a  stone. 

12.  Christ  save  us  all  from  a  death  like  this. 
On  the  reef  of  Norman's  Woe  ! 

13.  If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  might  ride. 

14.  God  be  merciful  to  us,  and  bless  us,  and  show  us  the  light  of 
his  countenance. 

15.  If  a  man  say  that  he  hath  no  sin,  he  deceiveth  himself ,  and 
the  truth  is  not  in  him.  : ) 

16.  If  he  had  told  the  truth,  somebody  would  have  believed  him. 

17.  If  impressment  were  the  law  of  the  world,  if  it  formed  part 
of  the  code  of  nations  and  were  usually  practiced,  then  it  might  be 
defended  as  a  common  right. 


134  THE  IMPERATIVE  MODE 

Lin.     THE    IMPERATIVE    MODE 

208.  We  learned  in  Lesson  XIV  that  sentences  expressing 
a  command  or  an  entreaty  are  called  imperative  sentences ; 
that  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  an  imperative  sentence  is  a 
pronoun  of  the  second  person,  —  yoUj  thou,  or  ye;  and  that 
this  subject  is  seldom  expressed.  The  verb  in  an  imperative 
sentence  is  said  to  be  in  the  imperative  mode ;  as,  "  Sleep, 
baby,  sleep.'' 

209.  There  is  only  one  form  for  the  imperative  mode,  hence 
it  is  not  said  to  have  tense  at  all. 

Conjugation  of  be  in  the  imperative  mode:  — 

Singular  Plural 

be  (you  or  thou)  be  (you  or  ye) 

Conjugation  of  see  in  the  imperative  mode:  — 

Singular  Plural 

see  (you  or  thou)  see  (you  or  ye) 

Summary.  —  The  imperative  mode  is  used  in  expressing  a 
command  or  an  entreaty.  It  has  but  one  form.  Its  subject 
is  always  the  pronoun  yoUj  thou,  or  ye. 

Exercise.  —  From  these  sentences  select  the  verbs  in  the 
imperative  mode.  Conjugate  these  verbs  in  the  indicative, 
subjunctive,  and  imperative  modes. 

1.  Ring,  happy  bells,  across  the  snow. 

2.  Break,  break,  break,  on  thy  cold,  gray  stones,  O  sea  I 

3.  Repent  ye,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand. 

4.  Run  upstairs  and  get  my  glasses. 

5.  Blow,  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks. 

6.  Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  O  my  soul  1 
As  the  swift  seasons  roll. 

Leave  thy  low-vaulted  past. 

Let  each  new  temple,  nobler  than  the  last. 

Shut  thee  from  heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  VERBS  135 

7.  Laugh,  and  the  world  laughs  with  you. 

8.  Work  till  the  last  beam  fadeth, 
Fadeth  to  shine  no  more. 

9.  Come  unto  me,  all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I 
will  give  you  rest. 

10.  Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might. 

11.  Suffer  the  little  children,  and  forbid  them  not  to  come  unto 
me,  for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

12.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 

13.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 
Life  is  but  an  empty  dream. 

Find  all  the  terms  of  address  in  the  sentences  above. 


LIV.     PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  VERBS.     REGULAR  AND 
IRREGULAR    VERBS 

210.  If  we  examine  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  see^  we 
shall  discover  that  most  of  the  tenses  are  formed  by  the  use 
of  auxiliary  verbs,  and  that  only  four  forms  of  the  verb  see 
itself  are  made  use  of;  namely,  see,  sees,  saw,  seen.  The 
form  sees  occurs  only  once,  but  the  other  three  forms  occur 
often.  These  three  forms  —  see,  saw,  seen  —  are  called  the 
principal  parts  of  the  verb  see. 

The  principal  parts  of  any  verb  are  the  present  indicative, 
as,  go^  take;  the  past  indicative,  as,  wenty  took;  and  another 
form,  as,  gone,  taken,  called  the  past  participle. 

211.  The  past  participle  is  used  in  forming  all  the  perfect 
tenses.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  we  should  say  I  have  gone  (not 
have  went),  I  had  taken  (not  had  took);  since  went  and  took 
are  past  tense  forms,  not  past  participles. 

The  past  participle  is  never  used  in  the  primary  tenses. 
That  is  why  we  say  /  saw  (not  seen),  I  did  (not  done). 

Note.  —  The  very  common  word  ought  is,  as  we  use  it  to-day,  an 
old  past  tense  form  of  the  verb  owe,  and  not  a  past  participle. 
Hence,  we  should  say  ought  to  go,  or  ought  not  to  go  (not  had  ought  to 
go  or  hadn't  ought  to  go). 


136  REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 

212.  Most  verbs  form  their  past  tense  and  past  participle 
by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  tense.  The  past  tense  and 
the  past  participle  of  move  are  moved  and  moved;  of  ylow  are 
plowed  and  plowed;  of  lift  are  lifted  and  lifted.  Such  verbs 
arecalled  regular  verbs. 

213.  Many  verbs  in  very  common  use  form  their  past  tense 
or  past  participle,  not  by  the  addition  of  a  suffix,  but  by  some 
change  within  the  word,  such  as  a  change  in  the  vowel.  The 
past  tense  and  past  participle  of  sing  are  sang  and  sung  re- 
spectively; oi  leave  are  left  and  left;  of  write  Sire  wrote  and 
written.     These  verbs  are  called  irregular  verbs. 

214.  Some  verbs,  like  put  and  set,  have  the  same  form  for 
each  of  their  principal  parts.     These  also  are  irregular  verbs. 

215.  The  verb  66  is  very  irregular.  Its  principal  parts 
are:  present  tense  am,  past  tense  was,  past  participle  been, 

216.  If  we  know  the  proper  auxiliaries  for  the  different 
tenses,  we  can  conjugate  any  verb  correctly  by  first  ascertain- 
ing its  principal  parts.  These  can  always  be  found  in  a  dic- 
tionary. 

Summary.  —  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present 
tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  past  participle. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense  and  past 
participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  tense. 
;' ''  ■>  An  irregular  verb  is  one  whose  past  tense  or  past  participle 
ik  formed  in.  sotiae  other  way  than  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the 
present  tense. 

Note.  —  Webstei^'s  New  International  Dictionary  gives  the 
present  tense  form  of  every  verb.  If  the  verb  is  irregular,  the 
dictionary  gives  also  the  past  tense  form  preceded  by  pret.j  and  the 
past  participle  preceded  by  p.p.  The  abbreviation  pret.  stands  for 
preterit,  which  means  past  tense.  If  the  verb  is  regular,  the  abbre- 
viations are  omitted,  and  the  form  mdor  ed  is  printed  but  once. 


REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS 


137 


Exercise.  —  Find  in  the  dictionary  the  past  tense  and  the 
past  participle  of  each  of  the  following  verbs.  Use  the  three 
forms  of  each  verb  correctly  in  sentences. 


awake 

come 

fling 

kneel 

run 

sling 

sweat 

bear 

cost 

fly 

knit 

say 

smite 

sweep 

beat 

creep 

forget 

know 

seek 

speak 

swim  ' 

begin 

cut 

freeze 

lay 

sell 

spend 

swing 

bid 

dare 

get 

lead 

shake 

spin 

take 

bind 

dig 

give 

lend 

shed 

spread 

tell 

bite 

do 

go 

let 

shine 

spring 

think 

bleed 

draw 

grind 

lie 

shoot 

stand 

throw 

blow 

drink 

grow 

lose 

show 

steal 

tread 

break 

drive 

hang 

make 

shrink 

stick 

wear 

bring 

eat 

have 

meet 

shut 

sting 

weave 

build 

fall 

hide 

pay 

sink 

stride 

weep 

buy 

feed 

hit 

read 

sit 

strike 

wet 

catch 

fight 

hold 

ride 

slay 

string 

win 

choose 

find 

hurt 

ring 

sleep 

strive 

wind 

cling 

flee 

keep 

rise 

slide 

swear 

wring 

217.  Many  errors  are  made  in  using  the  different  forms  of 
irregular  verbs. 

Certain  verbs,  the  meaning  and  principal  parts  of  which  are 
somewhat  alike,  occasion  a  good  deal  of  trouble  to  some  per- 
sons. The  most  important  of  these  are  lie  and  lay,  sit  and 
set  J  and  rise  and  raise.  The  first  word  of  each  pair,  lie,  sit,. 
and  rise  is  an  intransitive  verb.  The  second  verb  of  each  pair, 
lay,  set,  and  raise,  is  a  transitive  verb. 

Exercise  1.  —  Supply  the  correct  form  of  lie  or  lay  in  each 
of  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each  case. 
Lie  means  to  be  at  rest  in  a  recHning  position. 
Lay  means  to  place  a  thing  down  in  a  reclining  position. 

1.   down,  Phiz,  and  be  a  good  dog. 

2.  Phiz  at  the  foot  of  my  couch  and  gazed  out  of  the 

nearest  window. 

3.  After  he  had  - 
on  the  street. 


there  an  hour  or  more,  he  whined  to  go  out 


138  PRINCIPAL   PARTS   OF  VERBS 

4.  Phiz  brought  in  a  notebook  and it  at  my  feet. 

5.  Go  and it  on  your  master's  chair.  Phiz. 

6.  Did  the  soldiers on  the  damp  ground  ? 

7.  This  land too  low  for  grain  fields. 

8.  How  long  has  my  fan  been on  the  window  sill  ? 

9.  Grant in  bed  dictating  his  Memoirs. 

10.    The  tools  have here  in  the  wet  and  are  rusted. 

Exercise  2.  —  Supply  the  correct  form  of  sit  or  set  in  each 
of  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  eaclT^ase. 
Sit  means  to  be  in  a  sitting  position. 
Set  means  to  place  a  thing  down  in  a  position  of  rest. 

1.  By  and  by  we  looked  in,  and  there Miss  Eugene. 

2.  Have  you here  long,  or  did  you  just  come  ? 

3.  I  will my  suit  case  here,  and  then in  your  seat. 

4.  Why  did  you there  so  long  without  speaking? 

5.  Father the  white  hen  to-day,  so  she  will  be for  about 

three  weeks. 

6.  The  little  bird and  sings  at  his  door  in  the  sun. 

7.  Who  has  been in  my  chair  ? 

Exercise  3.  —  Supply  the  correct  form  of  rise  and  raise  in 
each  of  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each  case. 
Rise  means  to  move  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  position. 
Raise  means  to  cause  to  rise. 

1.  The  bread very  slowly  that  cold  day. 

2.  Bread because  of  the  yeast  in  it. 

3.  After  the  bread  had ,  we  set  the  pans  in  the  oven. 

4.  They the  old  house  so  as  to  put  a  furnace  in  the  cellar. 

5.  The  Black  River sixteen  inches  yesterday. 

6.  If  the  river  continues  to ,  the  dam  will  go  out. 

7.  Shall  we the  flag  at  sunrise  ? 

The  present  tense  form  of  some  verbs  is  misused  for  the 
past  tense.  We  should  say,  "  The  tailor  came  (not  come) 
last  night,"  ''  I  ran  (not  run)  a  mile  yesterday,"  ^' And  then 
he  said  (not  says),  *  Hurry  up.'  "  The  verbs  oftenest  mis- 
used in  this  way  are  come,  give,  run,  say,  and  see. 


REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR   VERBS  139 

Study  the  following  correct  sentences:  — 

He  came  last  night.  He  gave  me  a  dollar 

She  came  to  meet  me.  I  gave  the  child  a  penny. 

It  came  without  warning.  She  gave  it  to  me. 

I  ran  a  mile  yesterday.  They  ran  up  a  bill. 

He  ran  in  front  of  me.  The  dog  ran  behind. 

She  ran  out  of  sugar.  The  baby  ran  to  his  mother. 

At  last  he  said,  "  I  will  go."  I  saw  the  parade  yesterday. 

John  said,  "The  schoolhouse  is      He  saw  me  go  out. 

on  fire."  She  saw  them  at  the  window. 

I  said,  "  Ring  the  bells."  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

Some  persons  make  a  wrong  past  tense  for  certain  verbs, 
and  use  such  forms  as  blowed  and  drawedy  when  they  should 
use  blew  and  drew. 


Exercise  4.  —  Supply  the  correct  form  for  the  past  tense 
in  each  of  these  sentences :  — 

The  wind  soon the  smoke  away. 

The  boat four  feet  of  water. 

Lucy too  fast  to  be  strong. 

Nobody the  right  date  but  me. 

Who the  ball  last? 

Some  persons  use  the  past  participle  of  see  and  do  for  the 
past  tense.  We  should  say,  "  I  saw  (not  seen)  my  duty,  and 
I  did  (not  done)  it." 

Study  these  correct  sentences :  — 

I  saw  the  boat  go  down.  He  did  his  own  work. 

Who  saw  the  star  first  ?  She  did  it  too  fast. 

We  saw  the  elephant  dance.  Everybody  did  what  he  could. 

Another  common  error  is  the  use  of  the  past  tense  of  a 
verb  for  the  past  participle,  as  in  the  expressions  is  broke 
and  had  froze. 


1. 

Blow. 

2. 

Draw, 

3. 

Grow. 

4. 

Know. 

5. 

Throw. 

140  VOICE 

Exercise  5.  —  Supply  the  correct  form  in  each  of  these 
sentences:  — 

1.  Begin.  First  we  must  finish  what  we  have . 

2.  Break.  Dear  me  !    I  have the  bird's  seed  dish. 

3.  Drink.  Have  you all  the  milk  ? 

4.  Freeze.  If  the  lagoon  is ,  we  can  go  skating. 

5.  Steal.  Why  do  you  think  that  the  purse  was ? 

6.  Swim.  Have  you  ever out  to  the  island  ? 

LV.     VOICE 

218.  When  we  say,  ''  The  fish  swallowed  the  worm,"  we 
have  a  sentence  made  up  of  a  subject,  a  verb,  and  an  object 
complement.  The  subject  names  the  doer  of  the  action, 
while  the  object  names  the  receiver  of  the  action.  The  verb 
swallowed  could  have  nothing  for  subject  but  some  word  that 
indicates  the  doer  of  the  action.  How  is  it  with  the  verbs 
broke  J  struck,  whittled?  A  verb  that  requires  for  its  subject 
the  name  of  the  doer  of  an  action  is  said  to  be  in  the  active 
voice. 

219.  When  we  say,  "  The  worm  was  swallowed  by  the 
fish,"  we  have  a  sentence  made  up  of  a  subject,  a  verb,  and 
a  prepositional  phrase.  The  subject  names  the  receiver  of 
the  action,  and  the  phrase  tells  by  whom  the  action  was  per- 
formed. The  verb  was  swallowed  could  have  nothing  for  sub- 
ject but  some  word  that  indicates  the  receiver  of  the  action.^ 
How  is  it  with  the  verbs  was  swept,  has  been  eaten,  will  be  cut  ? 
A  verb  that  requires  for  its  subject  the  name  of  the  receiver 
of  the  action  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice. 

220.  When  a  verb  is  changed  from  the  active  to  the  passive 
voice,  the  object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  subject  of 
the  passive  verb.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  only  transitive 
verbs  can  have  the  passive  voice. 

221.  A  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  by  adding  the 
past  participle  of  the  verb  to  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  be. 


VOICE  141 

222.   Conjugation  of  the  verb  see  in  the  passive  voice:  — 

INDICATIVE  MODE 
Present  Tense  Past  Tense 

I  am  seen  we  are  seen  I  was  seen  we  were  seen 

thou  art  seen         you  are  seen  thou  wast  seen     you  were  seen 

he  is  seen  they  are  seen        he  was  seen  they  were  seen 

Future  Tense 
I  shall  be  seen  we  shall  be  seen 

thou  wilt  be  seen  you  will  be  seen 

he  will  be  seen  they  will  be  seen 

Present  Perfect 
I  have  been  seen  we  have  been  seen 

thou  hast  been  seen  you  have  been  seen 

he  has  been  seen  they  have  been  seen 

Past  Perfect 
I  had  been  seen  we  had  been  seen 

thou  hadst  been  seen  you  had  been  seen 

he  had  been  seen  they  had  been  seen 

Future  Perfect 
I  shall  have  been  seen  we  shall  have  been  seen 

thou  wilt  have  been  seen  you  will  have  been  seen 

he  will  have  been  seen  they  will  have  been  seen 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
Present  Past 

I  be  seen  we  be  seen  I  were  seen  we  were  seen 

thou  be  .seen  you  be  seen  thou  were  seen     you  were  seen 

he  be  seen  they  be  seen         he  were  seen         they  were  seen 

Present  Perfect 
I  have  been  seen  we  have  been  seen 

thou  have  been  seen  you  have  been  seen 

he  have  been  seen  they  have  been  seen 

Past  Perfect 
I  had  been  seen  we  had  been  seen 

thou  had  been  seen  you  had  been  seen 

he  had  been  seen  they  had  been  seen 


142  VOICE 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 
be  seen  (you  or  thou)  be  seen  {you  or  ye) 

223.  Conjugation  of  the  verb  see  in  the  passive  voice,  in- 
dicative mode,  interrogative  form :  — 

INDICATIVE   MODE 

Present  Past 

am  I  seen  are  we  seen  was  I  seen  were  we  seen   ^ 

art  thou  seen         are  you  seen  wast  thou  seen     were  you  seen! 

is  he  seen  are  they  seen         was  he  seen  were  they  seen 

Future 

shall  I  be  seen  shall  we  be  seen 

shalt  thou  be  seen  shall  you  be  seen 

will  he  be  seen  will  they  be  seen 

Present  Perfect 
have  I  been  seen  have  we  been  seen 

hast  thou  been  seen  have  you  been  seen 

has  he  been  seen  have  they  been  seen 

Past  Perfect 
had  I  been  seen  had  we  been  seen 

hadst  thou  been  seen  had  you  been  seen 

had  he  been  seen  had  they  been  seen 

Future  Perfect 
shall  I  have  been  seen  shall  we  have  been  seen 

shalt  thou  have  been  seen  shall  you  have  been  seen 

will  he  have  been  seen  will  they  have  been  seen 

Summary.  —  Voice  is  that  property  of  a  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  names  the  doer  or  the  receiver  of  an  action.' 

The  active  voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  doer  of 
an  action. 

The  passive  voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  receiver 
of  an  action. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  by  adding  the 
past  participle  of  the  verb  to  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  be. 

No  intransitive  verb  has  a  passive  voice. 


VOICE  143 

Exercise  1.  —  Conjugate  the  verbs  draWj  take,  find,  forget, 
and  leave  in  the  passive  voice,  both  declaratively  and  inter- 
rogatively. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences. 
Tell  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive.  Give  the 
tense,  mode,  voice,  and  subject  of  each.  Change  the  active 
verbs  to  the  passive  voice  and  the  passive  to  the  active. 

Note.  —  When  the  verb  is  passive,  the  name  of  the  doer  of  the 
'action  is  often  omitted.  Sometimes  we  do  not  know  who  the  doer 
is  ;  as,  "  The  art  of  printing  was  invented  in  China  long  ago." 
Sometimes  we  do  not  wish  to  tell  who  the  doer  is  ;  as,  "A  window 
was  broken  in  the  basement  yesterday."  Sometimes  the  subject  is 
so  obvious  as  not  to  be  worth  telling  ;  as,  "  Lying  is  despised."  In 
changing  sentences  like  these  three  to  the  active  voice,  we  must 
supply  a  subject  for  the  verb.  For  instance,  in  changing  the  sen- 
tence, "  The  pie  was  cut  into  four  pieces,"  we  might  say,  "Mother 
cut  the  pie  into  four  pieces." 

1.  The  babe  was  conveyed  to  the  church  in  a  grand  procession. 
The  road,  all  the  way,  was  carpeted  with  green  rushes.  Over  this 
road  the  little  infant  Elizabeth  was  borne  by  one  of  her  godmothers. 
She  was  wrapped  in  a  mantle  of  purple  velvet,  with  a  long  train. 
This  train  was  trimmed  with  ermine,  a  very  costly  kind  of  fur,  and 
was  borne  by  lords  and  ladies  of  high  rank.  These  dignitaries  were 
appointed  for  the  purpose  by  the  king. 

2.  The  height  of  the  pinnacle  is  determined  by  the  breadth  of 
the  base. 

3.  Leicester  Hospital  supports  twelve  old  soldiers  and  their 
wives. 

^  4.  After  the  housework  had  been  done,  they  went  out  to  the 
sunny  garden,  and  picked  the  luscious  red  raspberries,  not  forgetful 
of  the  time  when  Mrs.  Howe  had  set  out  the  bushes  with  her  own 
hands. 

5.  Many  of  these  splendid  castles  on  the  Rhine  have  been 
destroyed  in  modern  times. 

6.  It  is  wonderful  and  beautiful  how  a  man  and  his  dog  will 
stick  to  one  another  through  thick  and  thin. 

7.  The  door  had  been  very  firmly  fastened,  but  the  crowd  tore 
it  away  bodily,  and  the  light  of  the  torches  streamed  into  the  room. 


144  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 

8.  This  garden  is  shaded  by  long  lines  of  trees,  and  adorned  with 
fountains  and  statues. 

9.  Away  to  the  window  I  flew  like  a  flash, 

Tore  open  the  shutters,  and  threw  up  the  sash. 

10.  Elephants  are  very  strictly  preserved  by  the  English  govern- 
ment. 

11.  The  farm  boy  picks  up  the  potatoes  after  they  have  been 
dug ;  he  drives  the  cows  night  and  morning ;  he  brings  wood  and 
water  and  splits  kindling;  he  gets  up  the  horse  and  puts  out  the 
horse ;  whether  he  is  in  the  house  or  out  of  it,  there  is  always  some- 
thing for  him  to  do. 

12.  They  who  do  their  souls  no  wrong. 
But  keep  at  eve  the  faith  of  morn, 
Shall  daily  hear  the  angel  song, 
"To-day  the  Prince  of  Peace  is  born." 

13.  Mr.  Marley  has  been  dead  these  seven  years. 

14.  The  Peterkins  told  how  their  mother  had  put  salt  in  the 
coffee,  and  how  the  chemist  had  made  it  worse  instead  of  better. 

15.  We  climbed  the  Alps,  veiled  our  faces  before  the  awful 
splendors  of  Mont  Blanc,  trembled  on  the  verge  of  dizzy  heights, 
shrank  back  from  fathomless  abysses,  picked  our  way  across  the 
Mer  de  Glace,  and  cowered  beneath  the  weight  of  the  whole  incum- 
bent mass  of  mountains  as  we  went  through  the  tunnel. 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  way^  sentence  1,  forgetful 
4,  one  another  6,  open  9,  up  9,  souls  12,  years  13,  worse  14. 

LVI.     THE    PASSIVE    VOICE 

224.  Every  combination  of  some  form  of  the  verb  be  with 
the  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  is  not  necessarily  a 
passive  verb. 

For  example,  one  passive  form  of  the  verb  do  is  is  done,  but 
it  does  not  follow  that  is  done  is  always  a  passive  verb.  In 
the  sentence,  '^  The  meat  is  done  now,''  we  do  not  mean  that 
the  meat  is  receiving  an  action,  hence  is  done  cannot  be  a 
passive  verb.  We  mean  to  tell  the  condition  of  the  meat, 
that  it  is  done  meat.  The  word  done  is  used  in  precisely  the 
same  way  as  an  adjective;  as  if  we  should  say,  '*  The  meat  is 


THE  PASSIVE  VOICE  145 

good  now/'     In  other  words,  the  participle  done  is  a  subjec- 
tive complement. 

Past  participles  are  used  as  subjective  complements  to  tell 
the  condition  of  something  after  an  action  has  been  performed 
on  it ;  as,  "  Every  window  in  the  house  is  broken/^  ^^  My 
dress  is  badly  torUj^'  ^'  The  old  house  is  deserted,^' 

225.  When  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  whether  we  have  a  true 
passive  verb  or  not,  we  may  apply  these  tests :  (1)  Does 
the  sentence  mean  that  the  subject  is  acted  upon?  (2)  Can 
we  add  a  phrase,  telling  the  performer  of  the  action  ?  (3)  Can 
we  change  the  sentence  to  the  active  voice,  keeping,  of  course, 
the  same  tense? 

Let  us  take,  for  instance,  the  sentence,  "  Courage  is  praised.' 
We  do  mean  that  courage  receives  the  praising.  We  can 
add  the  phrase  by  everybody.  And  we  can  change  the  sen- 
tence to  the  active  sentence,  '^  Everybody  praises  courage.'' 
Hence  is  praised  is  the  verb,  and  is  in  the  passive  voice. 

But  in  the  sentence,  '^  Every  seat  in  the  balcony  is  taken," 
if  is  taken  is  a  passive  verb,  it  must  mean,  since  it  is  present 
tense,  that  every  seat  is  receiving  an  action  now.  It  does  not 
mean  this,  but  it  does  mean  that  every  seat  is  a  taken  seat, 
hence  taken  is  used  as  a  subjective  complement,  and  the  verb 
is  just  the  one  word  is, 

226.  We  learned  in  Lesson  XXXVII  that  some  verbs  like 
makej  electa  appoint,  and  cally  are  often  followed  by  a  direct 
object  and  an  objective  complement;  as,  *^  We  called  our 
canary  Buttercup." 

When  such  a  sentence  is  changed  to  the  passive  voice,  the 
direct  object  becomes,  of  course,  the  subject,  and  we  have  the 
sentence,  "  Our  canary  was  called  Buttercup."  The  word 
Buttercup  has  now  become  a  subjective  complement.  How 
do  we  know  this? 

When  the  objective  complement  is  an  adjective,  as  in  the 
Kimball's  eng.  gram.  — 10 


146  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 

sentence,  "  She  kept  the  polished  floor  as  bright  as  a  mir- 
ror," if  we  change  the  sentence  to  the  passive  voice,  the  ad- 
jective becomes  a  subjective  complement;  as,  ^^The  polished 
floor  was  kept  as  bright  as  a  mirror." 

227.  We  learned  in  Lesson  XXXIV  that  certain  verbs 
may  be  followed  by  both  an  indirect  and  a  direct  object;  as, 
"Fred  told  Arthur  the  news." 

In  changing  this  sentence  to  the  passive  voice  we  may  use 
the  direct  object  for  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb;  as, 
"The  news  was  told  to  Arthur  by  Fred";  or  we  may  use 
the  indirect  object  for  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb;  as, 
"Arthur  was  told  the  news  by  Fred."  In  the  latter  case 
we  have  an  idiomatic  construction  —  a  passive  verb  was  told 
taking  a  direct  object  the  news.  The  direct  object  of  a  pas- 
sive verb  is  often  called  a  retained  object,  because  it  remains 
as  an  object  after  the  sentence  has  been  changed  to  the  pas- 
sive voice. 

Not  all  sentences  containing  a  direct  and  an  indirect  ob- 
ject can  be  changed  to  the  passive  voice  in  two  ways.  We 
say,  "A  rose  was  given  to  me,"  or  "I  was  given  a  rose." 
We  say,  "  A  holiday  was  promised  to  the  children,"  or  "  The 
children  were  promised  a  holiday."  But  we  do  not  say,  "I 
was  passed  the  bread,"  "I  was  written  a  note,"  or  "I  was 
poured  a  cup  of  tea." 

Summary.  —  The  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  may 
Ibe  used  as  the  subjective  complement  of  some  form  of  the 
verb  be.     In  such  a  case  it  denotes  the  condition  of  the  subject. 

When  a  sentence  containing  a  direct  object  and  an  objective 
complement  is  changed  to  the  passive  voice,  the  direct  object 
becomes  the  subject,  and  the  objective  complement  becomes 
a  subjective  complement. 

Some  sentences  containing  both  an  indirect  and  a  direct 
object  may  be  changed  to  the  passive  voice  in  two  ways, 


THE  PASSIVE  VOICE  147 

either  the  direct  object  or  the  indirect  object  becoming  the 
subject. 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences. 
Tell  its  voice,  and  how  it  is  completed. 

1.  The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come,  and  the  voice  of  the 
turtle  is  heard  in  the  land. 

2.  Queen  Elizabeth  is  often  familiarly  called. Queen  Bess. 

3.  Rebecca's  face  was  so  swollen  with  tears  and  so  sharp  with 
misery  that  for  a  moment  Uncle  Jerry  scarcely  recognized  her. 

4.  To  put  it  mildly,  Mrs.  Howe  was  greatly  pleased  when  she 
was  elected  first  president  of  the  Murray  Hill  Society. 

5.  When  the  eggs  had  been  beaten  stiff,  the  little  cook  sifted  the 
sugar. 

6.  Christ  the  Lord  is  risen  to-day. 

7.  The  colonists  were  so  disheartened  and  alarmed  that  they 
sailed  at  once  for  England. 

8.  The  youngest  girl  in  the  senior  class  was  chosen  valedictorian. 

9.  When  the  automobile  ran  off  the  bridge,  every  one  was  sur- 
prised at  the  driver's  escape. 

10.    The  black  colt  had  been  named  Odin,  but  he  was  always 
called  Teddy. 

11.'  The  day  is  past  and  gone. 

The  evening  shades  appear. 

12.  Those  people  are  mistaken  who  say  that  hard  work  does  not 
pay  —  they  have  never  really  tried  it. 

13.  The  room  was  made  cool  and  dark,  so  that  the  lady  might 


14.  The  roofs  of  the  long  red  barns,  which  had  been  stained  green 
by  the  weather,  were  struck  by  the  level  rays  of  the  low,  western  sun./ 

15.  The  fabric  of  common  order  in  America  is  sound  and  strong 
at  the  center ;  the  pattern  is  well  marked,  and  the  threads  are  firmly 
woven. 

16.  Harvard  College  may  be  regarded  as  the  legitimate  child  of 
Emmanuel  College  at  Cambridge  in  England. 

Exercise  2.  —  Make  either  one  or  two  passive  sentences 
out  of  each  sentence  in  Exercise  2,  page  90.  Tell  in  each 
case  what  becomes  of  the  subject,  the  direct  object,  and  the 
indirect  object. 


148  THE   PROGRESSIVE  CONJUGATION 

LVII.     THE    PROGRESSIVE    CONJUGATION 

228.  We  have  learned  to  conjugate  verbs  both  declaratively 
and  interrogatively,  in  both  the  active  and  the  passive  voice. 
There  is  another  form  of  conjugation,  as  shown  in  the  state- 
ments, /  am  laughing,  I  was  laughing,  I  shall  he  laughing,  I 
have  been  laughing,  etc. 

We  use  this  form  of  conjugation  when  we  wish  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  continuance  of  the  action  asserted  by  the  verb,  and 
we  call  it  the  progressive  conjugation. 

229.  Just  as  we  use  the  past  participle  in  conjugating  a 
verb  in  the  passive  voice,  so  we  use  the  present  participle  in 
conjugating  a  verb  in  the  progressive  form.  Laughing  is  the 
present  participle  of  the  verb  laugh.  The  present  participle 
of  every  verb  ends  in  ing;  as,  running,  hoping,  tying. 

230.  Synopsis  of  the  progressive  conjugation  of  the  verb 
see:  — 

Note.  —  In  the  synopsis  of  a  conjugation  we  give  only  one  form 
for  each  tense,  instead  of  six  forms. 

INDICATIVE   MODE 

Present  I  am  seeing 

Past  I  was  seeing 

Future  I  shall  be  seeing 

Present  Perfect  I  have  been  seeing 

Past  Perfect  I  had  been  seeing 

Future  Perfect  I  shall  have  been  seeing 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE 

Present  I  be  seeing 

Past  I  were  seeing 

Present  Perfect  I  have  been  seeing 

Past  Perfect  I  had  been  seeing 

IMPERATIVE   MODE 
be  seeing  (you,  thou,  ye) 


THE  EMPHATIC  CONJUGATION  149 

231.  The  progressive  conjugation  may  be  made  interroga- 
tive by  changing  the  position  of  the  auxiliary ;  as,  am  I  see- 
ing f   ivas  I  seeing?  etc. 

Summary.  —  The  progressive  conjugation  is  used  to  denote 
a  continued  action. 

It  is  made  by  joining  the  present  participle  of  a  given  verb 
to  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  be. 

Exercise.  —  Conjugate  the  verbs  lifty  dine,  and  get  in  the 
progressive  form,  both  declaratively  and  interrogatively. 

LVIII.     THE    EMPHATIC    CONJUGATION 

232.  In  the  indicative  mode,  present  tense,  we  may  say, 
I  study y  which  is  the  common  form,  or  /  am  studying,  which 
is  the  progressive  form,  or  /  do  study,  which  is  the  emphatic 
form. 

233.  The  emphatic  conjugation  is  made  by  using  the  auxil- 
iary verb  do.  It  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  past  tenses 
of  the  indicative  mode,  and  in  the  imperative  mode. 

234.  Conjugation  of  the  verb  try  in  the  emphatic  form. 

INDICATIVE   MODE 

Present  Tense 
I  do  try  we  do  try 

thou  dost  try  you  do  try 

he  does  try  they  do  try 

Past  Tense 
I  did  try  we  did  try 

thou  didst  try  you  did  try 

he  did  try  they  did  try 

IMPERATIVE   MODE 
do  try  (thou,  you,  or  ye) 


150  PARSING  OF  VERBS 

235.  The  two  tenses  of  the  indicative  mode,  emphatic 
form,  may  be  made  interrogative,  as  we  learned  in  Lesson  LI. 

236.  The  emphatic  form  is  used  for  other  purposes  than 
for  emphasis.  It  is  generally  used  instead  of  the  ordinary 
forms  when  the  adverb  not  modifies  the  predicate.  We  say, 
"  I  do  not  love  thee.  Dr.  Fell,''  instead  of  '^  I  love  thee  not." 
And  in  the  imperative  mode  with  not  we  say,  ^^  Do  not  run 
with  the  ball,''  instead  of  '^  Run  not  with  the  ball." 

LIX.     PARSING    OF    VERBS 

237.  When  we  parse  a  verb,  we  should  tell,  — 

(1)  Its  class  as  to  form,  —  regular  or  irregular. 

(2)  Its  principal  parts. 

(3)  Its  class  as  to  use,  —  transitive  or  intransitive. 

(4)  Its  voice,  —  active  or  passive. 

(5)  Its  mode,  —  indicative,  subjunctive,  or  imperative. 

(6)  Its  tense. 

(7)  Its  person. 

(8)  Its  number. 

(9)  Its  form  of  conjugation,  — interrogative,  progressive, 
or  emphatic. 

(10)  Its  simple  subject. 

(11)  Its  complement  (if  any),  —  direct  object,  subjective 
complement,  or  objective  complement. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  What  are  you  smiling  at,  Lady  Mother? 

2.  The  shades  were  lowered  at  the  windows,  the  lamps  were 
lighted,  the  great  family  table  was  drawn  towards  the  fire. 

3.  When  he  went  out  from  the  village  at  the  head  of  his  men  one 
fine  day,  while  the  sun  was  shining  brightly,  and  the  birds  were 
singing,  he  did  not  neglect  a  single  one  of  the  many  things  which 
he  had  been  told  always  brought  good  luck  to  the  hunting. 

4.  "No,"  said  Mrs.  Howe,  "I  don't  enjoy  moving,  but  the 
children  do.     They  have  been  transporting  clocks,  and  pictures, 


THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS  SHALL  AND   WILL     151 

and  lamps  all  the  forenoon,  when  they  haven't  been  loading  the 
dray,  but  they  don't  seem  a  bit  tired." 

5.  What  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  gain  the  whole  world  and  lose 
his  own  soul  ? 

6.  Child,  was  not  your  father  called  Mustapha  the  tailor  ? 

7.  Do  look  at  those  gateposts  ! 

8.  The  hens  had  been  mysteriously  disappearing  for  over  a 
month. 

9.  Stir  not  a  step  till  I  come  again. 

10.  Do  you  wonder  that  I  missed  a  word  in  spelling  ? 

11.  Son,  have  any  told  thee  that  thou  art  beautiful  beyond  all^ 
men? 

12.  Hadn't  you  been  putting  on  airs  ? 

LX.     THE   AUXILIARY   VERBS    SHALL  AND    WILL 

238.  In  conjugating  a  verb  in  the  future  tense,  indicative 
mode,  we  make  use  of  the  auxiliaries  shall  and  vrilL 

Singular  Plural 

1  shall  go  we  shall  go 

thou  wilt  go  you  will  go 

he  will  go  they  will  go 

These  verb  phrases  express  simple  futurity,  —  they  assert 
an  intention  on  the  part  of  the  person  indicated  by  the  sub- 
ject, but  not  a  promise. 

239.  We  have  another  set  of  verb  phrases  belonging  to 
the  future  tense,  indicative  mode :  — 

I  will  go  we  will  go 

thou  shalt  go  you  shall  go 

he  shall  go  they  shall  go 

These  phrases  are  used  to  express  a  promise,  a  vow,  or  a 
threat  on  the  part  of  the  speaker ;  that  is,  the  speaker  will  see 
to  it  that  the  action  is  carried  out.  There  is  more  of  certainty 
in  these  phrases  than  in  those  of  the  first  set. 

240.  Shall  and  will  with  have  are  used  also  in  forming  the 
future  perfect  tense ;  as,  /  shall  have  gone,  he  will  have  come, 


152     THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS  SHALL  AND  WILL 

etc.  There  is  much  less  occasion  to  use  the  future  perfect 
tense  than  there  is  to  use  the  simple  future  tense,  so  we  shall 
discuss  the  use  of  shall  and  will  only  in  the  future  tense. 
When  that  is  mastered,  the  future  perfect  tense  will  present 
no  difficulties. 

241.  Frequent  errors  are  made  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will. 
Perhaps  the  commonest  occur  in  interrogative  sentences. 
Many  persons  say  carelessly,  ^^  Will  I  open  this  window  for 

.you?"  This  question  means,  ^^  Am  I  going  to  open  this 
window  for  you?  "  and  the  only  possible  answer  is,  '^  I  am 
sure  I  don't  know."  What  is  really  intended  by  the  question 
is  this,  "  Do  you  wish  me  to  open  this  window?  "  hence  we 
should  say,  "  Shall  I  open  this  window  for  you?  "  The  rule 
is,  —  When  the  subject  of  an  interrogative  sentence  is  I  or 
wCj  the  auxiliary  shall  should  be  used  instead  of  will, 

242.  In  questions  where  the  subject  is  a  word  of  the  second 
or  the  third  person,  we  should  use  in  the  question  the  form  we 
expect  in  the  answer.  A  boy  should  say  to  his  employer, 
"  Shall  you  be  in  your  office  this  afternoon  ?  "  because  he 
expects  the  reply,  ''  I  shall,"  meaning,  "  I  intend  to  be  there." 
But  a  boy  says  to  another  boy,  "  Will  you  pitch  for  us  to- 
morrow? "  because  he  expects  the  reply,  "  I  will,"  meaning 
''  I  promise." 

Summary.  —  Rules  for  the  use  of  shall  and  will:  — 

(1)  To  assert  simple  futurity  use  shall  in  the  first  person, 
and  vxill  in  the  second  and  third  persons. 

(2)  To  assert  determination,  a  promise,  or  a  threat,  use 
will  in  the  first  person,  shall  in  the  second  and  third 
persons. 

(3)  In  questions  use  shall  in  the  first  person.  In  the  sec- 
ond and  third  persons  use  will  or  shall  according  to  the  answer 
you  should  get.  The  form  of  the  answer  is  to  be  determined 
by  rules  1  and  2. 


THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS  SHALL  AND   WILL     153 

Exercise  1.  —  Account  for  the  use  of  shall  and  will  in  the 
following  sentences :  — 

1.  "What  shall  we  do  next  ?**  said  I,  with  a  long  breath. 

2.  Thou  shalt  hang  for  laying  thy  hand  upon  me. 

3.  Will  you  please  tell  me  whether  Mrs.  Josiah  Wheeler  lives 
on  this  road  ? 

4.  You  shall  have  a- birthday  party  on  the  lawn,  and  I  will 
make  you  a  soldier  suit,  and  papa  will  get  you  a  drum,  and  the 
supper  table  shall  be  set  under  the  balm-of-Gilead  tree. 

5.  "No,"  said  the  fairy,  "this  is  my  ax,  and  it  shall  lie  upon  the 
shelf,  while  you  must  dive  for  yours,  yourself." 

6.  "We  will  come  into  the  crop  lands  to  play  with  thee  by 
night,"  said  Gray  Brother  to  Mowgli. 

7.  Blessed  are  the  peacemakers;  for  they  shall  be  called  the 
children  of  God. 

8.  The  first  social  problem  is  the  problem  of  rule  :  who  shall 
exercise  it,  how  far  shall  it  go,  and  by  what  means  shall  it  be  en- 
forced ? 

9.  Whosoever  will  lose  his  life  for  my  sake  shall  find  it. 

10.  Let  us  rest  ourselves,  and  then  we  shall  be  better  able  to 
pursue  our  walk. 

11.  When  shall  we  three  meet  again 
In  thunder,  lightning,  or  in  rain  ? 

12.  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills,  whence  cometh  my 
strength. 

13.  Who  will  fill  our  vacant  places  ? 
Who  will  sing  our  songs  to-night  ? 

14.  The  daisies  will  be  there,  love. 
The  stars  in  heaven  will  shine ; 
But  I  shall  not  feel  thy  wish,  love, 
Nor  thou  my  hand  in  thine. 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  thy,  sentence  2,  me  3, 
you  4,  this  5,  yours  5,  yourself  5,  children  7,  we  11,  mine  12. 

Exercise  2.  —  Fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  auxiliary, 
and  give  your  reason  in  each  case. 

1.  O  mother  dear,  Jerusalem,  when I  come  to  thee  ? 

2.  We meet,  but  we miss  him, 

There be  one  vacant  chair. 


154  DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

3.  There  is  no  market  in  the  world  in  which  money buy 

brains. 

4.  You always  have  this  little  blue  Wedgwood  tea  set  to 

remember  her  by. 

5.   you  wear  the  hat  even  if  it  is  not  becoming  ? 

6.  I know  him  when  he  comes,  happy  youth. 

7.   you  get  my  watch  that  was  left  at  the  jeweler's  ? 

8.  Oh,  who walk  a  mile  with  me 

Along  life's  merry  way  ? 

9.  If  you  do  not  promise  to  be  home  before  midnight,  you 

not  go  to  the  ball. 

10.  Three  years  she  grew  in  sun  and  shower, 

Then  Nature  said,  **A  lovelier  flower 
On  earth  was  never  sown ; 

This  Child  I  to  myself take ; 

She be  mine,  and  I make 

A  Lady  of  my  own. 

"The  stars  of  midnight be  dear 

To  her ;  and  she lean  her  ear 

In  many  a  secret  place 
Where  rivulets  dance  their  wayward  round, 
And  beauty  born  of  murmuring  sound 
pass  into  her  face. 

"  And  vital  feelings  of  delight 
•  rear  her  form  to  stately  height, 


Her  virgin  bosom  swell ; 

Such  thoughts  to  Lucy  I give 

While  she  and  I  together  live 
Here  in  this  happy  dell." 


LXI.    DEFECTIVE    VERBS.     VERB    PHRASES 

243.  Some  verbs  lack  one  or  more  of  their  principal  parts. 
Such  verbs  are  called  defective  verbs. 

A  very  common  defective  verb,  which  has  only  one  form, 
is  ought,     (See  page  135.) 

Other  defective  verbs  are  can,  may,  must,  shall,  and  will. 
The  past  tense  forms  of  these  verbs  are  could,  might,  must, 


VERB   PHRASES  155 

shouldj  and  would,  respectively.  No  one  of  these  verbs  is 
ever  used  as  a  principal  verb,  except  wouldj  as  in  the  familiar 
expressions,  '*!  would  I  were  a  bird/'  ^^  Would  that  he  were 
here!'' 

244.  Shall  and  mil  are  used  as  auxiliary  verbs  to  form  the 
future  tenses.  Cariy  could,  may,  mighty  must,  should,  and 
would  are  used  to  form  certain  very  useful  verb  phrases  that 
are  in  the  present,  the  past,  or  the  future  perfect  tense,  and 
in  either  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive  mode  according  to 
their  meaning. 

245.  Using  these  verb  phrases  in  the  indicative  mode  we 
say,  — 

I  may  go  to  Japan.  He  may  have  gone  home  early. 

I  can  see  seven  stars.  It  cannot  have  come  yet. 

We  must  go  early.  He  must  have  sold  it. 

You  might  hurry  a  little.  We  might  have  hurried. 

He  could  not  tell  a  lie.  I  could  have  eaten  more. 

She  would  talk  in  church.  He  would  have  helped  me. 

We  should  honor  the  flag.  You  should  have  earned  it. 

If  we  look  closely  at  the  meaning  of  these  sentences,  and 
think  of  others  containing  the  same  auxiliaries,  we  shall  con- 
clude (1)  that  may  and  might  denote  possibility  or  permis- 
sion, (2)  that  can  and  could  denote  power  or  ability,  (3)  that 
must  denotes  necessity,  (4)  that  would  denotes  determination, 
(5)  that  should  denotes  obligation  or  duty. 

Any  one  of  the  verb  phrases  just  studied  may  be  made  in- 
terrogative by  transposition ;  as,  —  May  I  borrow  your  knife  ? 

246.  Can  and  must  are  used  only  in  the  indicative  mode. 
Using  may,  might,  could,  would,  and  should  in  subjunctive 
verb  phrases,  we  say,  — 

Long  may  it  wave  !    Oh,  that  he  would  help  ! 

Though  he  might  he  telling  the  truth,  he  would  not  be  believed. 

If  I  could  go  with  father,  I  should  be  happy. 

If  it  should  freeze,  we  could  go  skating. 


156  DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

If  we  look  closely  at  these  sentences,  we  shall  see  that  the 
verbs  denote  (1)  a  wish,  (2)  something  contrary  to  fact,  (3) 
something  uncertain.     (See  Lesson  LII.) 

247.  The  seven  auxiliaries  just  studied  may  be  used  in 
making  passive  verb  phrases.  Use  the  following  phrases  or 
similar  ones  in  sentences :  — 

may  be  broken  may  have  been  taken 

can  be  cut  can  have  been  heard 

must  be  paid  must  have  been  bought 

might  be  driven  might  have  been  kept 

could  be  seen  could  have  been  done 

would  be  hurt  would  have  been  stung 

should  be  met  should  have  been  throwji 

248.  Other  verb  phrases  in  very  common  use  in  speech  are 
formed  by  means  of  the  participle  going.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 
the  following  conversation  as  really  taking  place. 

**I  am  going  to  go  to  Niagara  Falls  next  summer." 

"Why,  you  were  going  to  go  there  last  summer.     In  fact,  you 

have  been  going  to  go  there  every  summer  since  I  have  known  you." 
"  True  enough.    My  intentions  are  good,  but  my  purse  is  light. 

Perhaps  I  shall  be  going  to  go  all  my  life,  and  then  get  to  heaven  first 

after  all." 

Each  of  the  four  groups  of  itaUcized  words  is  a  verb  phrase 
denoting  an  intention.  Make  ten  similar  phrases;  as,  am 
going  to  sing,  was  going  to  eat.  Notice  that  going  does  not 
denote  the  act  of  going  anywhere  to  sing  or  to  eat,  as  it  does 
in  '^  I  am  going  to  the  Park  to  hear  the  band  play,"  but 
only  the  purpose  or  intention  of  singing  or  eating. 

249.  Just  as  we  denote  an  intended  future  action  by  using 
the  word  going,  so  we  often  denote  a  customary  past  action 
by  a  phrase  in  which  we  employ  the  verb  used;  as,  "  She 
v^ed  to  wear  a  little  red  cape,''  "  Johnson  used  to  touch  every 
fence  post  that  he  passed."     The  italicized  words  should 


f 


VERB   PHRASES  157 

not  be  separated  here,  but  should  be  considered  as  one  group 
or  verb  phrase. 

250.  In  speaking  of  any  of  the  verb  phrases  described  in 
this  lesson,  we  may  call  them  verbs ;  we  decide  their  person 
and  number  by  their  subject,  their  voice  and  mode  by  their 
meaning,  and  their  tense  by  their  form. 

251.  The  verbs  have  and  do  are  not  always  auxiliaries. 
They  are  sometimes  principal  verbs,  and  as  such  are  conju- 
gated in  the  various  ways.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of 
have?  oi  do? 

Conjugate  have  in  the  indicative  mode;  do  in  the  emphatic 
form ;  have  in  the  progressive  form ;  do  in  the  passive  voice, 
in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  using  it  for  the  subject. 

252.  Verbs  like  rain^  snow,  hail,  etc.,  are  sometimes  called 
impersonal  verbs,  because  they  are  used  only  in  the  third 
person  singular  with  the  pronoun  it 

Summary.  —  A  defective  verb  is  one  that  lacks  one  or 
more  of  its  principal  parts. 

Defective  verbs  are  used  as  auxiliary  verbs. 

The  auxiliaries  mayy  cariy  must,  might,  could,  would,  and 
should  are  used  to  form  certain  common  verb  phrases. 

These  verb  phrases  may  be  active  or  passive,  declarative 
or  interrogative,  indicative  or  subjunctive  mode,  present, 
past,  or  present  perfect  tense. 

Going  is  used  to  form  verb  phrases  that  denote  a  future  or 
intended  action. 

Used  is  employed  to  form  verb  phrases  that  denote  a  cus- 
tomary past  action. 

Have  and  do  may  be  principal  verbs  as  well  as  auxiliary  verbs. 

Impersonal  verbs  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  singular, 
with  the  neuter  pronoun  it. 


158  DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  verb  phrases  in  the  following 
sentences.  Tell  their  voice,  person,  number,  subject,  and 
complement  if  they  have  any. 

1.  What  a  bird  it  must  be  that  could  utter  such  wondrous 
sounds ! 

2.  From  time  to  time  the  two  rabbits  would  halt,  sit  up  on  their 
hind  quarters,  erect  their  long,  attentive  ears,  and  glance  about 
warily  with  their  bulging  eyes. 

3.  The  rich  man's  son  inherits  cares ; 
The  bank  may  break,  the  factory  burn, 
A  breath  may  burst  his  bubble  shares. 
And  soft  white  hands  could  hardly  earn 
A  living  that  would  serve  his  turn. 

4.  All  the  girls  in  the  class  are  going  to  wear  pink  chambray 
dresses,  and  mother  is  going  to  make  mine  by  hand. 

5.  We  can  go  by  the  North  Road,  the  South  Road,  or  the 
Middle  Road. 

6.  Instead  of  candy,  mother  used  to  give  him  sugar  in  a  cup, 
and  then  he  would  stretch  out  on  the  sunny  doorstep  and  feed  his 
sweet  crystals  to  the  flies. 

7.  The  Cottontails  were  now  sole  owners  of  the  holes,  and  did 
not  go  near  them  when  they  could  help  it,  lest  anything  like  a 
path  should  be  made  that  might  betray  their  last  retreats  to  an 
enemy. 

8.  If  you  are  going  to  make  orange  marmalade  to-morrow,  you 
must  peel  the  oranges  this  evening. 

9.  I  should  think  that  something  might  be  done  about  covering 
the  cow's  horns ;   perhaps  they  might  be  padded  with  cotton. 

10.  Governor  Winthrop  wrote  his  third  wife  tender  messages  in 
a  way  that  could  only  have  come  of  long  practice.  ' 

11.  The  children  used  to  stand  at  the  window  in  the  twilight,  and 
watch  the  lights  appear  in  the  houses ;  and  when  they  had  counted 
ten,  they  used  to  clap  their  hands,  and  say,  "Now,  mother,  it  is  time 
to  light  the  lamp." 

12.  On  the  usual  crisp  mornings  of  sugar  season  the  snow  at  such 
an  hour  would  have  borne  a  crust  to  crackle  sharply  under  every 
footstep. 

13.  I  had  not  told  the  horse  that  I  was  going  to  whip  him,  so  he 
was  taken  by  surprise  and  started  forward. 

14.  Grandpa  would  not  be  helped  into  his  overcoat. 


VERB   PHRASES  159 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  verb  phrases  containing  any 
form  of  have  or  do.  Tell  whether  this  form  is  used  as  an  aux- 
iliary or  as  a  principal  verb. 

1.  Shere  Khan  does  us  great  honor. 

2.  Whoever  has  made  a  voyage  up  the  Hudson  must  remember 
the  Kaatskill  Mountains. 

3.  Do  you  ever  wonder  how  so  much  sin  and  wrong  and  suffer- 
ing can  be  in  God's  world  ? 

4.  Mother  never  forgot  the  millionaire's  daughter  who  said  that 
she  did  up  her  father's  shirts. 

5.  All  the  Offal  Court  boys  had  this  same  hard  time,  so  Tom 
supposed  it  was  the  correct  and  comfortable  thing. 

6.  Where  does  amber  get  its  strange,  poetic  charm  ? 

7.  I  never  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  a  crowing  hen;  but  I 
have  known  a  great  many  whistling  girls,  and  I  cannot  recall  an 
instance  where  their  ends  were  any  worse  than  those  of  other  girls. 

8.  If  I  could  have  committed  suicide  without  killing  myself, 
I  should  certainly  have  done  so. 

9.  She  had  eaten  as  many  mouthfuls  of  breakfast  as  she  possibly 
could  in  her  excited  condition,  had  kissed  everybody  good-by  twice 
over,  and  now  thought  it  was  time  to  be  starting. 

10.  I  can't  write  a  composition  unless  I  have  something  to  say, 
can  I? 

11.  On  these  hard,  smooth  roads  one  horse  will  do  the  work  of 
two. 

12.  I  do  not  feel  wholly  sure  that  my  Pussy  wrote  these  letters 
herself. 

13.  The  Boy  had  no  fear  of  the  undisputed  Master  of  the  Woods, 
the  big  black  bear. 

14.  Do  the  duty  that  lies  nearest  thee;  thy  second  duty  will 
already  have  become  clearer. 

15.  Jakie  had  been  stolen  from  the  nest  before  he  could  fly. 

16.  I  do  wish  that  you  and  your  father  would  turn  around 
directly  and  come  home. 

17.  Jane  had  had  the  inestimable  advantage  of  a  sorrow. 

18.  The  old  bell  had  things  all  its  own  way  up  in  the  steeple. 

19.  Boys  always  do  the  nice  splendid  things,  and  girls  can  only 
do  the  nasty  dull  ones  that  get  left  over. 

20.  After  the  twins  had  had  measles  and  mumps,  whooping  cough 
descended  on  the  household. 


160  DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  uSj  sentence  1,  honor  1, 
shirts  4,  same  5,  great  7,  two  11,  wholly  12,  herself  12 j  bear  13, 
clearer  14,  father  16,  /iome  16. 

253.  Many  errors  are  made  in  the  use  of  the  auxiliaries 
may  and  can,  would  and  should. 

We  should  use  may  to  denote  permission,  liberty,  or  possi- 
bility, and  can  to  denote  power  or  ability. 

Exercise  1.  —  Supply  the  correct  word  in  each  of  these 
sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each  case:  — 

1.  What I  do  to  help  you  ? 

2.  You have  a  watch  when  you  graduate. 

3.  I go  by  boat,  but  it  is  doubtful. 

4.   you  run  an  automobile  ? 

5.   we  have  a  school  paper  ? 

6.  Do  you  think  that  I earn  ten  dollars  a  week  ? 

7.  Fred,  you open  the  east  windows. 

8.  If  we  walk  fast,  we surely  get  there  in  time, 

9.  We get  there  in  time,  but  we  shall  have  to  hurry. 

Make  three  good  sentences  containing  may  and  three  con- 
taining can. 

Would  is  used  to  denote,  — 

(1)  Determination;  as,  ''  Albert  would  leave  school." 

(2)  Inclination;  as,  '^  I  would  read  more  if  I  could.'' 

(3)  Customary  past  action;  as,  '^  We  would  listen  to  her 
songs  hour  after  hour.'' 

Should  is  used  to  denote,  — 

(1)  Simple  intention;  as,  "  I  should  come  often  if  you  did 
not  live  so  far." 

(2)  Obligation  or  duty;  as,  '^  We  should  honor  our  parents." 
Perhaps  these  auxiliaries  are  oftenest  misused  when  asso- 
ciated with  the  verb  like.  The  expression,  ^'  I  would  like  to 
go,"  is  wrong,  because  it  means  ^^I  am  inclined  or  deter- 


VERB   PHRASES  161 

mined  to  like  something/'  which  is  not  good  sense.     Wa 

should  say,  — 

I  should  hke  to  go  We  should  like  to  go 

You  would  like  to  go  You  would  like  to  go 

f  He  would  like  to  go  They  would  like  to  go 

In  a  dependent  clause  should  denotes  merely  an  imaginary 
condition,  and  would  denotes  inclination  as  well  as  an  imag- 
inary condition. 

The  clauses,  '^  If  I  should  lose  my  watch,''  '^  If  you  should 
lose  your  watch,"  ^^If  he  should  lose  his  watch,"  are  equiva-^ 
lent  to  the  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mode,  and  denote 
merely  an  imaginary  condition. 

The  clauses,  ''  If  I  would  study  harder,"  ^'  if  you  would 
study  harder,"  '^  if  he  would  study  harder,"  denote  an  imag- 
inary condition  that  may  become  real  according  to  the  in- 
clination of  the  subject. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  familiar  dependent  clause  in 
the  following  sentence:  ''If  it  would  only  snow,  we  could 
have  a  sleigh  ride  ?  " 

Exercise  2.  —  Supply  the  correct  word  in  each  of  these- 
sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each  case:  — 

1.  You study  the  text  before  you  undertake  the  exercise.. 

2.  What you  do  with  him,  Mr.  Dick  ? 

3.  I wash  him  and  put  him  to  bed. 

4.  Neither  of  the  boys obey  me. 

5.  As  soon  as  day  broke,  the  canary begin  to  sing. 

6.  I like  to  meet  your  grandfather. 

7.  Any  girl be  satisfied  with  two  new  hats. 

8.  They all  like  to  come,  I  am  sure. 

9.  I not  take  one  cent  of  his  money. 

10.  I think  that  you be  glad  to  work. 

11.  Each  man keep  himself  loyal  to  truth. 

12.  If  I tell  the  story,  the  children not  be  satisfied. 

13.  If  I tell  them  stories  all  day  long,  they not  be  sat- 
isfied. 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  — 11 


162  DIRECT  AND   INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

Make  five  good  sentences  containing  would,  and  five  con- 
taining should. 

The  verb  have  got  is  often  misused  for  the  verb  have,  ^'  I 
have  it  '^  means  ^^  I  possess  it/^  while  ^^  I  have  got  it ''  means 
"I  have  procured  it/'  *^I  have  to  go  '^  means  ^'I  must  go/' 
while  '^  I  have  got  to  go ''  is  an  incorrect  expression. 

Exercise  3.  —  Supply  has  or  have,  has  got,  or  have  got  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences,  and  give  your  reason  in  each 
case.     Use  the  negative  word  not,  if  necessary. 

1.   you  tickets  for  the  entertainment  ? 

2.  No,  I them  yet. 

3.  Can  he  buy  a  farm  if  he no  money  ? 

4.   you  a  chisel,  Albert  ? 

5.  No,  I one,  but  Herman one. 

6.  At  last  he a  position  on  the  police  force. 

7.  We a  fruit  farm  and  father a  new  tenant  on  it. 

8.  We to  practice  at  four  o'clock. 

9.  I  can't  go  to  the  football  game  for  I to  work  Saturday 

afternoons. 

10.   Nobody to  leave  before  nine  o'clock. 

What  correct  expressions  can  you  substitute  for  has  got 
in  the  familiar  sentence,  "  Madge  has  got  to  do  as  I  say  "  ? 

LXn.     DIRECT   AND    INDIRECT   DISCOURSE 

254.  In  the  sentence,  —  Ruth  said,  ^'/  like  your  cake,** 
we  have  a  direct  quotation,  the  exact  words  spoken  by  Ruth. 

,A  direct  quotation  is  often  called  direct  discourse. 

In  the  sentence,  —  Ruth  said  that  she  liked  my  cake, 
we  have  an  indirect  quotation  containing  the  substance,  or 
thought,  of  Ruth^s  remark,  but  not  her  exact  words.  An 
indirect  quotation  is  often  called  indirect  discourse. 

255.  In  changing  from  direct  to  indirect  discourse,  we  are 
likely  to  make  a  change  in  personal  pronouns,  as  well  as  in 
the  tense  of  verbs.     An  indirect  quotation  usually  takes  the 


DIRECT  AND   INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  163 

form  of  a  dependent  clause  beginning  with  the  word  that  If 
the  verb  of  saying  that  usually  precedes  an  indirect  quotation 
is  in  the  present  tense,  then  the  verb  in  the  quotation  is  likely 
to  be  in  the  present  or  the  future  tense ;  but  if  the  verb  of  say- 
ing is  in  the  past  tense,  then  the  verb  in  the  quotation  is  likely 
to  be  in  the  past  tense ;  as. 

Father  says  that  he  is  on  the  jury. 
Father  said  that  he  was  on  the  jury. 

Can  you  account  for  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  indirect 
quotation  in  this  sentence,  —  Somebody  once  said  that  the 
pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword? 

256.  When  a  direct  quotation  containing  the  word  shall 
is  changed  to  an  indirect  quotation,  shall  is  retained  if  the 
verb  of  saying  preceding  the  quotation  is  in  the  present  tense; 
but  if  this  verb  is  in  the  past  tense,  then  shall  is  changed  to 
should.     In  like  manner  will  is  changed  to  would;  as,  — 

Mother  says,  "I  shall  be  voting  soon." 
Mother  says  that  she  shall  be  voting  soon. 
Mother  said  that  she  should  be  voting  soon. 

Mother  says,  "I  will  make  him  a  pillow." 
Mother  says  that  she  will  make  him  a  pillow. 
Mother  said  that  she  would  make  him  a  piUow. 

257.  If  a  direct  quotation  is  a  question,  it  becomes  an  in- 
direct question  when  changed  to  indirect  discourse ;  as,  — 

He  asked,  "Why  do  you  tremble  so?" 
He  asked  me  why  I  trembled  so. 

258.  A  command  may  be  changed  from  direct  to  indirect 
discourse ;   as,  — 

Christ  said,  *'Love  your  enemie^" 

Christ  said  that  we  should  love  our  enemies. 


164  DIRECT  AND  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

Exercise  1.  —  Account  for  the  use  of  shall,  willj  should,  and 
would  in  the  following  sentences:  — 

1.  The  teacher  said,  "I  shall  be  pleased  to  go." 

2.  The  teacher  said  that  she  should  be  pleased  to  go. 

3.  Aunt  Elsie  said,  "I  will  tell  you  the  story  to-morrow." 

4.  Aunt  Elsie  said  that  she  would  tell  us  the  story  to-morrow. 

5.  The  principal  said,  "You  shall  have  no  recess  to-day." 

6.  The  principal  said  that  we  should  have  no  recess  to-day. 

7.  Mother  said,  "You  will  be  late." 

8.  Mother  said  that  I  should  be  late. 

9.  The  mayor  said,  "The  matter  shall  be  investigated." 

10.  The  mayor  said  that  the  matter  should  be  investigated. 

11.  The  directors  said,  "The  celebration  will  be  on  Tuesday." 

12.  The  director  said  that  the  celebration  would  be  on  Tuesday. 

13.  The  teacher  said,  "David  and  Harry  shaU  not  take  part." 

14.  David  and  Harry,  the  teacher  said  that  you  should  not  take 
part. 

15.  The  boys  said,  "David  and  Harry  will  be  sorry." 

16.  David  and  Harry,  the  boys  said  that  you  would  be  sorry. 

Exercise  2.  —  Change  the  following  sentences  from  direct 
to  indirect  discourse :  — 

1.  Longfellow  said,  "  Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest." 

2.  John  wrote,  "I  know  that  Shep  wiU  give  you  a  warm  welcome 
when  you  come." 

3.  The  lawyer  demanded,  "Mr.  Christoff,  what  have  you  done 
with  the  company's  books?" 

4.  The  Bible  says,  "Give  to  him  that  asketh." 

5.  Patrick  Henry  asked,  "When  shall  we  be  stronger?" 

6.  The  eloquent  speaker  said,  "The  declaration  of  our  inde- 
Ipendence  will  strengthen  us  at  home,  and  give  us  character  abroad." 

7.  The  great  orator  declared,  "If  we  fail,  it  can  be  no  worse  for 
us.    But  we  shall  not  fail.    The  cause  will  raise  up  armies." 

8.  He  admitted,  "  We  may  not  live  to  the  time  when  this  decla- 
ration shall  be  made  good." 

9.  Then  he  uttered  this  prophecy:  "This  declaration  must 
cost  treasure,  and  it  may  cost  blood ;  but  it  will  stand,  and  it  will 
richly  compensate  for  both." 

10.  Every  listener  was  moved  when  the  statesman  said,  "If  it 
be  the  pleasure  of  Heaven  that  my  country  shall  require  the  poor 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERB  AND  SUBJECT  165 

offering  of  my  life,  the  victim  shall  be  ready  at  the  appointed  hour 
of  sacrifice." 

11.  His  closing  words  were  these :  "All  that  I  have,  and  all  that 
I  am,  and  all  that  I  hope,  in  this  life,  I  am  now  ready  here  to  stake 
upon  it ;  and  I  leave  off  as  I  began,  that  live  or  die,  survive  or 
perish,  I  am  for  the  declaration." 

Exercise  3.  —  Make  the  following  sentences  clear  by  chang- 
ing them  from  indirect  to  direct  discourse :  — 

1.  The  teacher  told  Mrs.  Gray  that  her  little  girl  lost  the  report 
she  had  given  her. 

2.  Jennie  told  Ada  that  her  mother  was  willing  that  she  should 
go  to  the  concert  with  her  and  her  brother. 

3.  Bertrand  told  George  that  he  ought  to  sell  his  sailboat  and 
buy  his  launch. 

4.  The  teachers  asked  the  young  men  why  they  had  made  such 
a  disturbance  in  the  corridor  when  they  had  forbidden  them  to 
congregate  there. 

LXIII.     AGREEMENT  OF  VERB  AND  SUBJECT.     COL- 
LECTIVE   NOUNS 

259.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number,  and 
since  the  verb  changes  its  form  sometimes  to  denote  number, 
we  must  be  careful  to  employ  the  correct  form.  We  should 
say,  ^^  The  rose  is  red,  the  roses  are  red ;  the  wind  does 
blow,  the  winds  do  blow;  the  bird  flies,  the  birds  ^^/-'^ 

260.  This  agreement  of  the  subject  and  the  verb  is  a  sim- 
ple matter  in  English,  for  in  our  language  verbs  have  the 
same  form  in  the  singular  and  the  plural,  except  in  four 
cases : — 

(1)  The  verb  he,  which  changes  its  form  considerably  to 
indicate  number,  in  the  present  and  past  tenses.    See  page  128. 

(2)  Any  verb  in  the  second  person  conjugated  in  the  solemn 
style.     See  page  128. 

(3)  Any  verb  in  the  third  person  of  the  present  tense,  in- 
dicative mode;   as,  he  speaks,  they  speak. 


166         AGREEMENT   OF  VERB   AND  SUBJECT 

(4)  Any  verb  in  the  third  person  of  the  present  perfect 
indicative;   as,  he  has  spoken,  they  have  spoken. 

261.  As  donH  is  a  contraction  of  do  noty  it  should  be  used 
only  with  a  plural  subject,  or  with  the  singular  pronouns  / 
and  you.  We  say,  "I  donH  know,"  "You  donH  know,'' 
"They  don't  know,"  but  "He  doesn't  know,"  " She  doesnH 
know,"  "It  doesn't  come." 

262.  A  compound  subject  composed  of  two  or  more  singu- 
lar nouns  should  have  a  plural  verb  when  the  parts  are  joined 
by  any  conjunction  but  or  or  nor.  We  say,  "  Either  John  or 
Byron  is  her  cousin,"  and  "  Both  John  and  Joe  are  her  cousins 

When  two  singular  subjects  refer  to  one  person,  the  verb, 
of  course,  should  be  singular.  We  say,  "  The  secretary  and 
treasurer  was  absent." 

263.  TMien  a  singular  noun  is  modified  by  the  limiting 
adjective  eachy  every y  either j  neither y  any,  or  no,  and  used  as 
subject  of  a  clause,  its  verb  must  be  singular ;  as,  "  Each  flower 
is  a  thing  of  beauty,"  "No  man  lives  but  loves  something." 

In  declarative  sentences  this  rule  is  not  likely  to  be  violated, 
but  it  is  often  violated  in  interrogative  sentences,  where  the 
verb  precedes  the  subject.  We  should  say,  "  Has  either  book 
been  returned  ?  "  "7s  either  of  you  willing  to  stay  ?  ^'  ''  Was 
neither  of  the  speakers  on  time  ?  " 

264.  There  is  a  class  of  nouns  like  flocky  armyy  herdy  com- 
pany y  which  mean  a  collection  of  individuals,  and  so  seem 
to  be  plural ;  but  since  the  individuals  forming  the  collection 
are  thought  of  as  one  body,  these  nouns  are  in  reality  singular. 
They  are  collective  nouns. 

265.  The  verb  of  which  a  collective  noun  is  subject  is  a 
singular  verb,  and  the  pronoun  that  stands  for  a  collective 
noun  is  the  neuter  singular  pronoun  it.  We  say,  "  The  com- 
pany is  on  its  way  to  the  Philippines." 


COLLECTIVE  NOUNS  167 

Note.  —  When  a  collective  noun  is  plural  in  meaning,  that  is, 
when  the  individuals  are  thought  of  as  acting  separately,  it  takes 
a  plural  verb  ;  as,  "  The  faculty  are  not  going  to  trouble  their  heads 
about  the  kind  of  shoes  we  wear." 

Summary.  —  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  in  number. 

A  collective  noun  is  one  that  names  a  group  of  individuals 
considered  as  one  body. 

A  collective  noun  is  usually  singular  and  neuter. 

Exercise  1.  —  If  you  do  not  already  know,  find  out  from 
the  dictionary  to  what  sort  of  individuals  each  of  these,  col- 
lective nouns  is  applied, 
bevy  crew  gang  orchestra 


choir 

drove 

hive 

regiment 

committee 

family 

horde 

swarm 

constellation 

fleet 

jury 

tribe 

covey 

flock 

mob 

troop 

Exercise  2.  —  Find  all  the  collective  nouns  in  these  sen- 
tences. Find  evidence  as  to  whether  they  are  singular  or 
plural.  If  they  are  plural,  tell  why.  Give  the  reason  for 
the  number  of  each  verb. 

1.  Forty  wolves  make  a  very  fair  pack  indeed. 

2.  At  the  edge  of  the  thicket  was  a  straggling  colony  of  low  blue- 
berry bushes. 

3.  Here,  in  course  of  days,  there  accumulated  a  shining  cluster 
of  six  large  white  eggs. 

4.  At  last  cousin  Eben  came  with  a  double  sleigh  and  the  team 
of  prancing  grays,  and  then  the  whole  family  was  off  for  Christmas 
dinner  at  Aunt  Mary's. 

5.  Has  either  of  the  critics  ever  heard  the  new  organ  ? 

6.  No  man  in  his  senses  takes  such  a  risk. 

7.  A  school  of  porpoises  were  ducking  and  tearing  through  the 
water. 

8.  Through  the  ancient  forest,  which  was  a  mixed  growth  of 
cedar,  water  ash,  black  poplar,  and  maple,  with  here  and  there  a 
group  of  hemlocks  on  a  knoll,  the  light  drained  down  confusedly. 


168  REVIEW  OF  VERBS:    PARSING 

9.  The  opinions  of  this  junto  were  completely  controlled  by 
Nicholas  Vedder. 

10.  Is  either  of  you  going  up  the  river  in  the  houseboat  ? 

11.  This  band  of  crows  numbered  about  two  hundred. 

12.  Each  year  the  old  crow  came  with  his  troop,  and  for  about 
■six  weeks  took  up  his  abode  on  the  hill. 

13.  Here  and  there  a  band  of  chimney  sweeps  were  staring  in 
stupid  wonder  at  the  miracle  of  a  showman's  box. 

14.  Butler  tells  of  an  Indian  tribe  in  the  Far  North  that  was  all 
but  exterminated  by  a  feud  over  a  dog. 

15.  On  a  level  spot  was  a  company  of  odd-looking  personages 
playing  at  ninepins. 

16.  Every  word  on  his  papers  was  correctly  spelled. 

17.  The  rest  of  the  horses  swept  dutifully  into  line,  and  the 
herd  was  off. 

LXIV.     REVIEW   OF   VERBS:    PARSING 

266.  Study  again  Lessons  XXIII-XXVTI,  XLIX-LXIII. 
Make  an  outline  of  verbs,  having  the  following  main  topics :  — 

(1)  Classification. 

(2)  Properties. 

(3)  Conjugation. 

(4)  Principal  Parts. 

(5)  Auxiliaries. 

(6)  Agreement. 

Fill  in  the  subtopics  and  recite  in  detail  from  your  outline 
with  illustrations  of  every  point. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences 
according  to  the  outline  on  p.  150:  — 

1.  If  you  have  a  Halloween  party,  shall  you  invite  the  Cromers  ? 

2.  At  first  the  chemist  said  he  couldn't  do  anything  about  it ; 
but  when  Agamemnon  said  they  would  pay  in  gold  if  he  would 
only  go,  he  packed  up  his  bottles  in  a  leather  case,  and  went  back 
with  the  Peterkins. 

3.  Faith's  journeys  end  is  welcome  to  the  weary, 

And  heaven,  the  heart's  true  home,  will  come  at  last. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS  169 

4.  We  are  going  to  have  a  tile  well,  and  Mr.  Jones  is  going  to 
oversee  the  men  who  dig  it. 

5.  This  woodehuck  was  neither  handsome  nor  interesting,  but 
he  knew  how  to  take  care  of  himself. 

6.  Sheep  are  usually  kept  in  flocks  of  from  one  thousand  to 
three  thousand  under  one  or  more  shepherds. 

7.  Rabbits  telegraph  each  other  by  thumping  on  the  ground 
with  their  hind  feet. 

8.  Lady  Moon,  Lady  Moon,  where  are  you  roving  ? 

9.  Breast  the  wave,  Christian,  when  it  is  strongest. 
Watch  for  day.  Christian,  when  the  night's  longest. 

10.  Even  so  did  men  talk  round  the  king's  cages  at  Oodeypore. 

11.  Your  Uncle  Nathan  and  I  used  to  be  called  the  bothering 
Bodleys,  because  we  were  always  teasing  to  find  out  something. 

12.  The  Peterkins  had  been  so  busy  inside  the  house  that  they 
had  not  noticed  the  ceasing  of  the  storm  outside. 

13.  For  thou.  Lord,  wilt  give  thy  blessing  unto  the  righteous, 
and  with  thy  favorable  kindness  wilt  thou  defend  him  as  with  a 
shield. 

14.  My  father's,  like  every  other  young  ladies'  school  near  a 
village,  was  very  much  disturbed  by  the  attentions  of  the  village 
young  men. 

15.  If  any  man  have  a  hundred  sheep,  and  one  of  them  be  gone 
astray,  doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine  and  go  into  the  moun- 
tains and  seek  that  which  goeth  astray  ? 

16.  They  were  sitting  round  the  breakfast  table  and  wondering 
what  they  should  do  because  the  lady  from  Philadelphia  had  gone 
away. 

LXV.     CLASSIFICATION    OF   ADVERBS.     SIMPLE 
ADVERBS 

267.  In  Lesson  X  it  was  shown  that  an  adverb  modifies 
a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  Select  the  adverbs 
in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  what  words  they  modify :  — 

We  proceeded  through  a  tract  of  country  excessively  wild  and 
desolate. 

People  with  lanterns  rushed  hither  and  thither. 

John  knew  that  he  could  spend  a  day  very  pleasantly  in  going 
over  to  that  pasture. 


170  CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS 

All  the  adverbs  in  these  sentences  are  called  simple  adverbs 
because  they  have  but  one  office  in  the  sentence,  —  they 
merely  modify  the  word  they  go  with. 

268.  In  the  sentence,  ^'  Perhaps  my  pony  can  carry  the 
load/'  the  word  perhaps  tells  nothing  whatever  about  the 
action  of  carrying,  but  rather  serves  to  make  the  whole  state- 
ment doubtful.  Such  a  word  is  said  to  modify  the  whole 
sentence.  Some  other  adverbs  used  in  this  way  are  certainly y 
indeed,  fortunately,  and  not. 

The  common  use  of  the  adverb  not  is  to  change  an  affirm- 
ative statement  to  a  negative  statement,  as  in  the  sentence, 
"  I  will  not  wear  my  heart  upon  my  sleeve." 

269.  The  simple  adverbs,  when,  where,  why,  how,  whence, 
whither,  are  used  in  asking  questions;  as,  ^^When  shall  we  be 
stronger  ? ''  "  Why  do  you  answer  me  so?  ''  Such  adverbs 
modify  the  whole  predicate.  They  are  called  interrogative 
adverbs. 

Note.  —  The  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adverb  before  comparatives  ; 
as,  ^^The  more  you  have,  the  more  you  want." 

270.  When  the  meaning  permits,  adverbs  may  be  com- 
pared in  the  same  manner  as  adjectives;  as,  fast,  faster,  fast- 
est; pleasantly,  more  pleasantly,  most  pleasantly;  fortunately, 
less  fortunately,  least  fortunately. 

Summary.  —  A  simple  adverb  is  one  that  merely  modifies 
the  word  or  the  group  of  words  that  it  goes  with. 

Some  simple  adverbs,  like  not,  perhaps,  certainly,  modify 
the  whole  sentence. 

An  interrogative  adverb  is  a  simple  adverb  that  is  used  in 
asking  a  question. 

Some  adverbs  may  be  compared. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  simple  adverbs  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  tell  what  each  modifies.  In  so  far  as  you 
can,  tell  what  each  adverb  denotes.     (See  Lesson  X.) 


CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS  171 

1.  How  the  huge  breakers  foam  and  fret ! 

2.  People  living  by  the  sea  are  always  more  or  less  superstitious. 

3.  No  one  can  work  well  without  sleep. 

4.  Whence  came  that  blessed  mother  love,  so  strong,  so  daunt- 
less, so  pure,  and  whither  has  it  fled  ? 

5.  Where  had  the  stone  been  before  ?  Why  did  it  come  there  ? 
When  would  it  go  away  ? 

6.  Heaven  is  not  reached  at  a  single  bound. 

7.  Luckily,  poor  Pepper  was  not  seriously  hurt. 

8.  Meanwhile  Mrs.  Peterkin  was  getting  quite  impatient  for 
her  coffee. 

9.  How  do  you  like  to  go  up  in  a  swing,  up  in  the  air  so  blue  ? 

10.  Why  should  one  hurry  when  days  are  long  and  calm  and 
sweet  ? 

11.  You  may  lead  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  cannot  make  him 
drink. 

12.  Presently  a  huge  black  bear  poked  his  nose  out  of  the  bushes, 
and  sniffed  inquiringly. 

13.  How  quickly  we  learn  to  claim  as  our  own  that  in  which  we 
delight! 

LXVI.  CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS 

271.  In  Lesson  XX  we  learned  that  a  dependent  clause  is 
one  that  does  not  make  sense  when  standing  alone;  also  that 
such  a  clause  sometimes  has  the  office  of  an  adverb,  modify- 
ing a  predicate,  and  sometimes  that  of  an  adjective,  modi- 
fying a  noun.  It  is,  therefore,  called  an  adverbial  clause 
or  an  adjective   clause. 

Select  and  classify  the  dependent  clauses  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences :  — 

(a)  Old  Stony  Phiz  set  out  on  a  visit  to  the  valley  where  he  was 
born. 

(b)  When  I  first  came  to  Rivermouth,  I  looked  upon  girls  as 
rather  tame  company. 

272.  A  dependent  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  some 
word  which  indicates  that  it  is  a  dependent  clause.  In  the 
clause  where  he  was  horn,  this  introductory  word  is  where. 
What  is  the  introductory  word  in  the  clause  in  sentence  (6)  ? 


172  CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS 

This  introductory  word  does  more  than  introduce  the 
clause;  it  joins  the  clause  to  the  word  the  clause  modifies. 
What  does  where  join  in  (a)?  What  does  the  introductory 
word  in  (6)  join? 

But  these  words  do  more  than  join.  Where  denotes  place, 
and  modifies  the  verb  was  horn.  Hence  it  is  an  adverb. 
What  does  when  denote?     What  does  it  modify? 

Since  these  words  have  two  uses,  that  of  an  adverb  and' 
that  of  a  joining  word,  we  call  them  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Summary.  —  A  conjunctive  adverb  is  one  that  introduces 
a  clause,  modifies  some  part  of  the  clause,  generally  the  pred- 
icate, and  joins  the  clause  to  that  part  of  the  sentence  which 
the  clause  modifies. 

Some  common  conjunctive  adverbs  are  when^  where,  whence, 
whenever,  wherever,  while,  why,  how,     (See  note,  p.  177.) 

An  adverbial  clause  is  a  dependent  clause  that  is  used  like 
an  adverb. 

An  adjective  clause  is  a  dependent  clause  that  is  used  like 
an  adjective. 

Both  the  adjective  and  the  adverbial  clause  may  be  in- 
troduced by  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  conjunctive  adverbs  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Tell  what  clause  they  introduce,  what  they 
join,  what  they  denote,  and  what  they  modify. 

1.  When  his  eyes  got  command  of  the  dusk,  he  saw  to  his  sur- 
prise that  the  den  was  empty. 

2.  Mr.  Gathergold  bethought  himself  of  his  native  valley,  and 
resolved  to  go  back  thither,  and  end  his  days  where  he  was  born. 

3.  The  canals  in  Amsterdam  are  crossed  by  a  great  many  draw- 
bridges, and  the  people  must  sometimes  wait  while  a  ship  or  barge 
is  passing. 

4.  Our  lunch  was  only  bread  and  tea  and  blueberries  and  cream, 
but  do  you  remember  how  delicious  it  tasted  that  day  when  you 
came  home  from  the  circus  as  tired  as  a  dog  and  as  hungry  as  a 
bear  ? 


SUMMARY  OF  ADVERBS  173 

5.  Whenever  I  cross  the  river 

On  its  bridge  with  wooden  piers, 
Like  the  odor  of  brine  from  the  ocean, 
Comes  the  thought  of  other  years. 

6.  The  reason  why  men  succeed  who  mind  their  own  business 
is  because  there  is  so  little  competition. 

7.  The  frugal  snail,  with  forecast  of  repose, 
Carries  his  house  with  him  where'er  he  goes. 

8.  When  all  the  trees  in  the  forest  have  the  same  number  of 
leaves,  then  will  all  men  be  alike  in  their  power  and  skill. 

9.  While  the  breath's  in  his  mouth,  he  must  bear  without  fail, 
In  the  name  of  the  Empress  the  Overland  Mail. 

10.  Where'er  our  footsteps  range, 
Comes  the  chilling  breath  of  change, 
And  the  best  of  friends  look  strange 

When  the  purse  is  low. 

11.  The  reason  why  men  do  not  obey  us  is  because  they  see  the 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  our  eye. 

12.  So  shut  your  eyes  while  mother  sings 

Of  wonderful  sights  that  be. 

13.  Chip  answered  me  with  a  cheery  little  note  or  two  whenever 
I  spoke  to  him. 

14.  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 

A  rainbow  in  the  sky. 

LXVII.     SUMMARY   OF  ADVERBS 

273.   We  have  learned,  — 

(1)  That  adverbs  may  be  simple  adverbs  or  conjunctive 
adverbs. 

(2)  That  simple  adverbs  merely  modify  some  word  or 
group  of  words. 

(3)  That  conjunctive  adverbs  modify,  and  at  the  same  time 
introduce  a  dependent  clause  and  join  it  to  whatever  the 
clause  modifies. 

(4)  That  one  kind  of  simple  adverb  is  the  interrogative 
adverb,  which  is  used  in  asking  a  question. 

(5)  That  an  adverb  may  modify  a  verb,  an  adjective,  an 
adverb,  a  whole  predicate,  or  even  a  whole  statement. 


174  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

(6)  That  adverbs  may  denote  time,  place,  manner,  degree, 
and  direction. 

(7)  That  some  adverbs  may  be  compared. 

Give  a  good  illustration  of  each  point  in  this  summary. 

274.  When  we  parse  an  adverb  we  should  tell,  — 

(1)  Its  class  as  to  use,  —  simple,  interrogative,  conjunctive. 

(2)  Its  class  as  to  meaning, — time,  place,  manner,  etc. 

(3)  Its  degree  (if  it  admits  of  comparison). 

(4)  Its  use,  and  what  it  modifies. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  each  adverb  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  Virtue  and  intelligence  will  lead  our  country  ever  onward  in 
her  happy  career. 

2.  Oh,  why  should  the  spirit  of  mortal  be  proud  ? 

3.  The  man  in  the  moon  came  down  too  soon. 

4.  Fortunately,  what  seemed  to  be  a  barrel  of  apples  turned  out 
to  be  an  electric  lamp. 

5.  The  old  horse  cars  rocked  along  scarcely  faster  than  we  could 
walk. 

6.  Calmly  I  await  the  hour  when  the  summons  comes  for  me. 

7.  Somewhere  the  birds  are  singing  evermore. 

8.  I  will  lock  the  door  most  willingly,  but  I  will  not  cover  the 
bird. 

9.  Probably  Frank  was  mightily  relieved  when  he  saw  the 
mayor's  automobile. 

10.  Our  side  made  a  remarkably  good  score. 

11.  Where  shall  we  sit  in  the  new  church? 

LXVIII.     COORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS 

275.  We  have  learned  that  such  words  as  and,  but,  and  or 
are  conjunctions.  Their  use  is  merely  to  join,  and  they  may 
join  either  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  Since  they  join  like 
elements,  —  a  word  to  a  word,  a  phrase  to  a  phrase,  a  clause 
to  a  clause,  a  sentence  to  a  sentence,  we  call  them  coordi- 
nate conjunctions. 


COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  175 

276.  In  the  sentence,  '^  Either  the  well  was  very  deep  or 
she  fell  very  slowly/'  the  coordinate  conjunction  or,  which 
joins  two  sentences,  is  preceded  by  the  word  either,  which 
hints  that  or  is  coming.  When  either  and  or  are  used  in  this 
way,  they  are  called  correlatives;  that  is,  they  are  words 
related  to  each  other.  Other  correlatives  are  neither,  nor; 
not  only,  but;  both,  and.  It  is  always  the  second  word  of 
these  pairs  that  does  the  joining.  The  first  merely  tells  the 
listener  or  reader  what  sort  of  sentence  is  to  follow. 

Note. — Frequently  a  coordinate  conjunction  has  another  word 
going  with  it  to  change  or  emphasize  its  meaning.  In  the  sentence, 
"  He  is  rich  and  yet  he  is  not  generous,'*  the  word  yet  going  with  and 
changes  its  meaning  to  but.  In  the  sentence,  "  He  is  poor,  but  still 
he  is  generous,"  the  word  still  reinforces  the  meaning  of  hut.  Such 
a  word  associated  with  a  conjunction  may  be  said  to  be  a  part  of  the 
conjunction,  that  is,  the  two  words  together  do  the  joining.  In  the 
same  way  the  two  words  not  only  form  the  correlative  of  but  or  but 
also ;  as,  "  He  is  not  only  a  teacher  but  also  a  student."  What  does 
hut  also  join  here  ? 

Summary.  —  A  coordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  joins 
like  elements.     It  is  sometimes  more  than  one  word. 

Correlative  coordinate  conjunctions  are  pairs  of  words,  the 
second  of  which  does  the  joining. 

Exercise.  —  When  we  parse  a  coordinate  conjunction  we 
tell  its  class  and  what  it  joins.  If  it  has  a  correlative,  we 
state  that  fact.  Parse  the  coordinate  conjunctions  in  the 
following  sentences :  — 

1.  The  writer  who  professes  to  care  nothing  for  fame  is  prob- 
ably deceiving  himself,  or  else  his  liver  is  out  of  order. 

2.  Everybody  took  a  holiday,  and  high  and  low,  rich  and  poor, 
feasted  and  danced  and  sang,  and  got  very  mellow. 

3.  There  was  neither  dust  nor  mud  nor  noise  to  annoy  one. 

4.  The  mahogany  arm  chair  is  very  handsome,  and  the  green 
plush  rocker  is  very  comfortable,  but  still  I  choose  this  little  chair 
with  the  flowers  painted  on  the  back,  that  mother  gave  to  me  when 
I  was  only  five. 


176  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

5.  On  its  southern  side  is  an  elevated  walk,  or  terrace,  very 
broad  and  handsome,  and  about  half  a  mile  long. 

Note.  —  In  the  preceding  sentence,  try  to  discover  under  what 
circumstances  an  appositive  is  joined  to  the  word  it  explains  by  or. 
Notice  the  punctuation.  Make  other  sentences  illustrating  this 
use  of  or. 

6.  The  road  to  Paradise  is  rough  and  thorny. 

7.  His  chief  amusements  were  gunning  and  fishing,  or  saunter- 
ing along  the  beach  and  through  the  myrtles. 

8.  Neither  hare  nor  grouse  was  stirring  in  the  brushy  opens. 

9.  You  know  Mary  always  bangs  things  when  she  is  cross,  but 
I  never  could  see  what  good  it  does. 

10.  When  the  two  children  went  down  to  the  river  to  play,  they 
not  only  disobeyed  their  mothers,  but  they  also  ran  away  from 
school. 

11.  I  never  looked  either  neat  or  clean,  though  I  had  my  daily 
bath  and  a  generous  allowance  of  clothes. 

12.  Over  the  tree  tops  and  from  the  open  spaces  in  the  wood 
could  be  seen  the  first  pallor  of  approaching  day. 

13.  In  deep  snow  the  moose  can  neither  flee  nor  fight. 

14.  They  always  put  Mammy  Tittleback  in  the  carriage  too; 
but  before  they  had  carried  her  far,  she  generally  jumped  out,  and 
walked  the  rest  of  the  way  by  their  side. 

15.  These  Spaniards  wished  to  build  ships  and  to  get  away; 
but  they  had  neither  knowledge  nor  tools  nor  iron  nor  forge  nor  tow 
nor  resin  nor  rigging. 

16.  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small. 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  himself,  sentence  1,  high, 
low  2,  mellow  2,  when  4,  neat  11,  allowance  11,  pallor  12. 

LXIX.     SUBORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS 

277.  We  have  learned  that  a  dependent  clause  is  often 
used  as  an  adverb  to  modify  a  predicate.  When  so  used,  it  is 
joined  to  the  predicate  it  modifies  by  some  connecting  word. 

Sometimes  this  connecting  word  is  a  conjunctive  adverb, 
as  was  pointed  out  in  Lesson  LXVI,  but  more  often  it  is 
some  other  word,  as  in  the  following  sentences :  — 


SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  177 

Sheep  are  such  senseless  creatures  that  they  are  liable  to  be  stam- 
peded by  the  veriest  trifle. 

You  cannot  catch  a  muskrat  unless  you  put  tar  on  his  nose. 
I  love  hens  because  they  are  such  good  mothers. 

What  is  the  dependent  clause  in  each  of  these  sentences  ? 
What  does  it  modify?  What  word  joins  it  to  that  part  of 
the  sentence  which  it  modifies? 

These  connecting  words,  —  that,  unless,  and  because,  —  are 
not  adverbs,  for  they  do  not  modify  any  word.  They  merely 
connect,  hence  they  are  conjunctions.  Since  they  connect 
elements  not  alike,  not  equal  in  rank,  they  are  called  subor- 
dinate conjunctions. 

278.  There  are  many  subordinate  conjunctions.  The  most 
common  are  after,  although,  as,  because,  before,  for,  if,  in  order 
that,  lest,  provided,  since,  so  that,  than,  that,  though,  till,  and  unless. 

Note.  —  There  is  little  distinction  between  the  subordinate  con- 
junction and  the  conjunctive  adverb.  Both  connect  a  dependent 
to  a  principal  clause  ;  and  some  subordinate  conjunctions,  like  con- 
junctive adverbs,  express  time,  cause,  or  manner,  etc.  For  this 
reason,  as,  after,  before,  since,  till,  etc.  are  included  by  some 
authors  among  conjunctive  adverbs.  Compare,  *'  I  came  when  you 
called  me  "  with  "  I  came  before  you  called  me." 

Summary.  —  A  subordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  in- 
troduces  a  dependent  clause,  and  joins  it  to  that  part  of  the 
sentence  which  it  modifies. 

Exercise.  —  Parse  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.    Tell  their  class  and  what  they  join. 

1.  The  four  cubs,  running  down  hill  on  their  bellies,  melted  into 
the  thorn  and  underbrush  as  a  mole  melts  into  a  lawn. 

2.  Boys  will  do  any  amount  of  work  provided  it  is  called  play. 

3.  The  great  horned  owl  stood  so  erect  and  motionless  that  he 
seemed  a  portion  of  the  pine  trunk  ijtself . 

4.  Since  the  maples  were  cut  down,  the  elms  have  flourished. 

5.  Androclus  had  not  lain  long  quiet  in  the  cavern,  before  he 
heard  a  dreadful  noise,  which  seemed  to  be  the  roar  of  some  wild 
beast,  and  terrified  him  very  much. 

Kimball's  enq.  gram.  — 12 


178  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

6.  Harry  laughed  till  the  tears  ran  down  his  cheeks. 

7.  Unless  you  have  sat  on  a  stone  fence  and  beaten  russet 
apples  soft  on  its  hard  top,  you  have  missed  one  of  the  greatest 
delicacies  that  the  orchard  gives. 

8.  I  liked  the  doctor  very  much,  for  he  would  let  me  drive  around 
with  him,  and  hold  his  horse  while  he  made  his  professional  calls. 

9.  Fast  the  ivy  stealeth  on,  though  he  wears  no  wings. 

10.  Even  after  the  invitations  were  sent  out,  it  seemed  to  Dolly 
that  the  party  day  would  never  come. 

11.  The  shawl  doll  was  my  favorite  because  it  was  more  nearly 
the  size  of  a  real  baby. 

12.  The  two  young  Cratchits  crammed  spoons  into  their  mouths 
lest  they  should  shriek  for  goose  before  their  turn  came  to  be  helped. 

13.  A  man  would  laugh  if  you  told  him  that  he  had  never  really 
seen  a  burdock. 

Select  all  the  verbs  in  the  sentences  above.  Classify  them 
as  transitive  or  intransitive.  Tell  their  voice,  mode,  and 
tense. 

279.  Some  words  may  be  used  as  conjmictions,  as  preposi- 
tions, or  as  adverbs. 

After. 

Conj.  —  I  came  after  you  called  me  the  second  time. 

Adv.  —  We  look  before  and  after ^  and  pine  for  what  is  not. 

Prep.  —  Let  us  walk  to  the  lake  after  school. 

Before. 

Conj.  —  The  roosters  woke  me  before  the  sun  rose. 
Adv.  —  They  had  never  seen  mountains  before. 
Prep.  —  In  winter  we  get  up  before  daylight. 

But. 

•   Conj.  —  I  am  weak,  but  Thou  art  mighty. 

Prep.  —  He  relishes  no  fruit  but  apples. 

Adv.  —  We  can  but  die. 

Else. 

Conj.   —  You  must  tell  the  tn;th,  else  you  will  not  be  trusted. 

Adv.    —  How  else  can  we  get  to  Berlin  ? 

Adv.    —  Where  else  shall  I  look  for  your  glasses  ? 

Note.  —  What  part  of  speech  is  else  in  the  sentences,  */What  else 
can  I  do  for  you?"     !'Who  else  was  there?!! 


SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  179 

For. 

Conj.  —  Work  for  the  night  is  coming. 

Prep.  —  The  faithful  slave  died  for  his  young  master. 

Hence. 

Conj.  —  Smoke  is  coming  out  of  the  chimney,  hence  the  house 
must  be  occupied. 

Adv.  —  Let  me  go  hence  and  be  no  more  seen. 

Only. 

Conj.  —  I  should  be  glad  to  go,  only  I  have  nothing  to  wear. 

Adv.   —  I  made  the  cake ;   mother  only  baked  it. 

Note.  —  What  part  of  speech  is  only  in  the  sentence,  **  Grace  is 
an  only  child  "  ? 

Since. 

Conj.  —  I  have  been  happy  since  you  became  my  friend. 

Prep.  —  Prices  have  never  gone  down  since  the  war. 

Adv.  —  One  day  the  dog  disappeared,  and  he  has  never  been  heard 
of  since. 

So. 

Conj.  —  The  baby  monopolized  her  time,  so  she  withdrew  from 
the  club. 

Adv.  —  Don't  speak  so  loud,  Caroline. 

Till  or  Until. 

Conj.  —  Tarry  .thou  till  I  come. 
Prep.  —  We  work  hard  until  noon. 

Yet. 

Conj.  —  She  speaks  much,  yet  she  says  very  little. 
Adv.  —  Has  the  case  been  settled  yet  ? 

Explain  the  use  of  each  italicized  word  in  the  sentences 
above. 

280.  When  we  parse  a  preposition,  we  tell  (1)  what  phrase 
it  introduces,  and  (2)  what  words  it  shows  a  relation  between; 
thus,  "In  the  sentence,  ^I  bring  you  tidings  of  great  joy,' 
the  preposition  of  introduces  the  adjective  phrase  of  great  joy, 
and  shows  a  relation  between  its  object  great  joy  and  the 
noun  tidingsJ* 


180  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES 

Exercise.  —  Parse  all  the  conjunctions,  adverbs,  and 
prepositions  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  Roger  Conant  came  over  from  England  before  1630. 

2.  We  had  a  cold  spell  in  April,  so  the  peach  crop  is  small. 

3.  Our  flag  was  still  there. 

4.  The  barn  was  strongly  built,  so  it  was  made  over  into  a  good 
house. 

5.  Ours  is  a  government  of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by 
the  people. 

6.  Look  before  you  leap. 

7.  Years  have  passed  since  anybody  remembered  my  birthday. 

8.  The  poet  saw  the  daffodils  beside  the  lake. 

9.  After  the  boy  arrived  in  Richmond,  he  slept  under  a  side- 
walk. 

10.  Did  anybody  besides  Rufus  go  with  you  to  Janesville  ? 

11.  Mr.  Micawber  would  pay  his  debts  if  something  would  only 
turn  up. 

12.  Jill  came  tumbling  after. 

13.  The  turkey  was  steamed  first,  else  it  would  not  have  been  so 
tender. 

14.  The  fern  has  grown  fast  since  Easter. 

15.  I  can't  paint  well  if  you  look  over  my  shoulder. 

16.  There  is  nothing  to  breathe  but  air. 

17.  Wait  till  the  clouds  roll  by. 

18.  Disappointments  will  surely  come,  yet  they  need  not  crush 
us. 

19.  I  will  go  before  the  king. 

20.  Did  you  make  your  will  before  you  went  round  the  world  ? 

LXX.     ADVERBIAL    CLAUSES    OF  TIME,  PLACE,  AND 

MANNER 

281.  Adverbial  clauses  are  used  in  many  different  relations. 
Frequently  they  denote  the  time  when  an  action  is  performed ; 
as,  '^  When  the  pie  was  opened,  the  birds  began  to  sing.'' 
Here  the  clause  tells  when  the  birds  began  to  sing,  and  hence 
modifies  the  predicate.  It  is  joined  to  began  to  sing  by  the 
conjunctive  adverb  when. 

A  subordinate  connective  does  not  have  to  come  between 


ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES  181 

the  elements  that  it  joins.  This  enables  us  to  put  a  depend- 
ent clause  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.  What  is  the 
advantage  of  such  an  arrangement? 

An  adverbial  clause  of  time  answers  such  questions  as 
when?  how  often?  how  long?  It  is  joined  to  what  it  modifies 
by  the  conjunctive  adverbs  lohen,  while,  whenever,  or  by  the 
subordinating  conjunctions  before,  after,  till,  until,  since,  as. 

Sometimes,  if  the  connective  is  when,  and  the  clause  comes 
first,  we  begin  the  principal  proposition  with  the  simple 
adverb  then,  which  we  call  a  correlative  of  when.  Illustrate 
this. 

282.  The  adverbial  clause  may  be  used  to  tell  the  place 
where  some  action  is  performed ;  as,  ^'  The  maid  is  standing 
with  reluctant  feet  where  the  brook  and  river  meet.''  Here 
the  clause  tells  where  the  maid  is  standing,  and  is  joined  to 
is  standing  by  the  conjunctive  adverb  where. 

An  adverbial  clause  of  place  answers  such  questions  as  in 
what  place?  to  what  place?  from  what  place?  It  is  introduced 
by  the  conjunctive  adverbs  where,  whence,  whither,  wherever. 
Sometimes  there  is  used  in  the  principal  proposition  as  a  cor- 
relative of  where  in  the  clause.  Which  of  these  correlatives 
is  the  connective? 

283.  Frequently  the  manner  of  an  action,  the  way  in  which 
it  was  performed,  is  told  by  an  adverbial  clause;  as,  *'  Not 
as  the  conqueror  comes,  they  the  true-hearted  came."  What 
is  the  clause  here  ?  What  does  it  tell  ?  What  does  it  modify  ? 
What  is  the  connective  ?    What  is  the  use  of  not  ? 

A  clause  of  manner  answers  the  question  in  what  way?  It 
is  joined  to  what  it  modifies  by  the  subordinate  conjunction 
as,  as  if,  or  as  though.  The  simple  adverb  so  may  be  used  as 
a  correlative  of  as. 

284.  The  word  like  is  never  a  subordinate  conjunction, 
hence  it  cannot  properly  be  used  for  as  or  as  if.     We  should 


182  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES 

say,  ^'  Walk  as  (not  like)  I  do;  "She  walks  as  if  she  were 
tired  (not  like  she  was  tired).  Like  may  be  used  as  a  prepo- 
sition to  introduce  a  phrase ;  as,  "  Elizabeth  walks  like  him.^* 

Exercise  1.  —  Fill  the  blank  in  each  of  these  sentences  with 
the  proper  word,  and  explain  your  choice:  — 

1.  Mary  sings a  bird. 

2.  It  looks it  would  rain. 

3.  The  man  speaks he  knew  his  subject. 

4.  March  came  in a  lion. 

5.  You  knit  just my  grandmother  does. 

6.  The  children  ate they  were  hungry. 

7.  Can  you  dance the  gypsies  do  ?     * 

8.  Plant  the  seeds  exactly I  told  you  to. 

Summary.  —  An  adverbial  clause  of  time  tells  when  a  con- 
dition exists,  or  when  an  action  was  performed. 

An  adverbial  clause  of  place  tells  where  a  condition  exists, 
or  where  an  action  was  performed. 

An  adverbial  clause  of  manner  tells  in  what  way  something 
was  done. 

The  connectives  wheUy  where,  and  as  are  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  the  correlatives  then,  there,  and  so  respectively. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  adverbial  clauses  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Tell  what  each  clause  denotes,  what  it  mod- 
ifies, and  what  its  connective  is.  Study  the  punctuation 
of  these  sentences,  and  make  a  rule  for  the  punctuation  of 
adverbial  clauses :  — 

1.  Your  bicycle  is  a  stationary  bit  of  iron  and  india  rubber, 
until  you  put  your  feet  upon  the  pedals  and  use  your  mind  to  guide 
the  wheel. 

2.  The  old  man  sits  as  if  he  were  carved  in  stone. 

3.  Where  the  snowflakes  fall  thickest,  there  nothing  can  freeze. 

4.  When  mother  awoke  and  saw  the  burglar,  she  quietly  ordered 
him  to  leave ;  and  only  after  she  had  pursued  his  obedient  figure  to 
the  door  did  it  occur  to  her  that  the  proper  thing  to  do  was  to 
scream. 


ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES  183 

5.  Where  the  peak  leaned  to  the  valley,  the  trunk  of  a  giant  pine 
jutted  forth  slantingly  from  a  roothold  a  little  below  the  summit. 

6.  As  we  came  up  the  harbor  I  had  noticed  that  the  houses  were 
huddled  together  on  an  immense  hill. 

7.  I  have  come  to  meet  judges  so  wise  and  so  grand 

That  I  shake  in  my  shoes  while  they're  shaking  my  hand. 

8.  She  struck  where  the  white  and  fleecy  waves 
Looked  soft  as  carded  wool. 

9.  Whither  thou  goest,  I  will  go ;    and  where  thou  lodgest,  I  ^ 
will  lodge. 

10.  When  the  blackbird  approached  that  side  of  the  cage,  the 
goldfinch  dashed  away  as  though  he  feared  his  strange  neighbor 
might  come  through. 

11.  I  love  to  hear  thine  earnest  voice  wherever  thou  art  hid, 
Thou  testy  little  dogmatist,  thou  pretty  Katydid  ! 

12.  At  every  little  station  a  man  popped  out  as  if  he  were  worked 
by  machinery,  and  waved  a  red  flag,  and  appeared  as  though  he 
would  like  to  have  us  stop. 

13.  The  little  bandy-legged  dogs  had  been  trotting  steadily  for 
many  an  hour,  until  their  tongues  hung  out  for  want  of  breath. 

14.  Years  had  passed  since  that  particular  panther  had  strayed 
from  his  high  fastnesses,  where  game  was  plentiful  and  none  dared 
poach  on  his  preserves. 

15.  I  stood  up  and  *'  hoUered  "  with  all  my  might,  as  everybody 
does  with  oxen,  as  if  they  were  born  deaf,  and  whacked  them  with 
the  long  lash  over  the  head,  just  as  the  big  folks  did  when  they 
drove. 


LXXI.     ADVERBIAL    CLAUSES    OF    CAUSE,  PURPOSE, 
AND    RESULT 

285.  One  action  or  condition  may  cause  some  other  action 
or  condition,  and  when  we  tell  this,  we  often  make  such  a  sen- 
tence as  the  following,  ^'  Most  caged  birds  are  not  happy, 
because  few  of  them  are  well  cared  for.'^  Here  the  dependent 
proposition,  because  few  of  them  are  well  cared  for  is  an  ad- 
verbial clause  of  cause,  for  it  tells  the  cause  of  the  fact  in  the 
principal  clause,  or  why  most  caged  birds  are  not  happy. 

The  adverbial  clause  of  cause  answers  the  question  why? 


184  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES 

or  how  do  you  know?  and  is  usually  joined  to  the  predicate 
that  it  modifies  by  the  subordinate  conjunction  foVj  because j 
or  since. 

286.  Sometimes  an  action  is  performed  in  order  that  some 
other  action  or  condition  may  come  to  pass.  We  say  then 
that  the  action  is  performed  for  a  purpose,  and  we  express 
this  purpose  by  means  of  an  adverbial  clause ;  as,  ^'  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  would  walk  the  whole  length  of  Milan  that  he  might 
alter  a  single  tint  in  his  picture  of  the  Last  Supper.^'  Here 
the  clause  that  he  might  alter  a  single  tint  in  his  picture  of  the 
Last  Supper  tells  the  purpose  that  the  artist  had  in  walking 
the  whole  length  of  Milan.  What  does  this  clause  modify? 
What  is  it  introduced  by? 

A  clause  of  purpose  answers  the  question  what  for  f  It  is 
usually  joined  to  the  predicate  that  it  modifies  by  the  sub- 
ordinate conjunction  thatj  so  that,  or  in  order  that, 

287.  A  clause  of  purpose  tells  an  intention  without 
saying  that  this  intention  ever  really  comes  to  pass.  But 
there  is  another  clause  which  tells  what  really  happens 
as  an  outcome  of  the  action  or  condition  in  the  principal 
clause.  This  is  called  a  clause  of  result;  for  instance,  ^^  So 
porous  is  the  limestone  of  the  roads  that  in  five  minutes  after 
a  brisk  shower  one  has  no  need  of  overshoes.'^  Here  the  prin- 
cipal clause  tells  us  that  the  roads  are  porous,  and  the  clause 
tells  us  what  is  the  result,  or  outcome,  of  their  being  porous. 
What  is  the  clause  in  this  sentence?  What  does  it  modify? 
What  is  it  introduced  by? 

A  clause  of  result  answers  the  question  what  of  it  f ,  and  is 
generally  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction  that. 

Summary.  —  A  clause  of  cause  tells  what  produces  a  certain 
act  or  condition. 

A  clause  of  purpose  tells  the  intended  consequence  of  some 
action. 


ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES  185 

A  clause  of  result  tells  the  real  consequence  of  some  action 
or  condition. 

Exercise.  —  Select  the  adverbial  clauses,  classify  them, 
giving  your  reason  in  each  case,  tell  what  they  modify,  and 
what  they  are  joined  by.     Account  for  the  punctuation. 

1.  I  have  explained  thus  carefully  about  my  Bird  Room  because 
I  do  not  approve  of  keeping  wild  birds  in  cages. 

2.  When  Chipee  had  eaten  all  she  could,  she  would  quietly  sit 
down  in  the  seed  dish  so  that  Chip  couldn't  get  any. 

3.  Of  course  this  bird  could  not  be  set  free,  for  he  did  not  know 
how  to  take  care  of  himself. 

4.  One  little  nugget  of  purest  gold  the  surveyor  carefully  pre- 
served, that  it  might  one  day  become  a  wedding  ring  for  the  gray- 
eyed  girl  in  Maine. 

5.  Had  his  nerves  grown  so  sensitive  that  the  staring  of  a  chip- 
munk or  a  rabbit  had  power  to  break  his  sleep  ? 

6.  So  strong  was  Polly's  liking  for  green  peas  that  the  sight  of 
raw  peas  made  her  wild  till  some  were  given  to  her. 

7.  Master  Fox  said  to  the  Crow,  "Sing  but  one  song  to  me, 
that  I  may  greet  you  as  the  Queen  of  Birds." 

8.  It  is  very  convenient  to  be  a  reasonable  creature,  since  it 
enables  you  to  find  or  make  a  reason  for  everything  you  have  a 
mind  to  do. 

9.  Rebecca  left  the  screen  door  ajar,  so  that  flies  came  in. 

10.  Rolf  was  called  the  Goer  because  he  had  such  long  legs  that 
when  he  mounted  one  of  the  little  Norwegian  horses,  his  feet  touched 
the  ground. 

11.  Dikes  are  built  that  the  spread  and  flow  of  the  water  may  be 
regulated,  and  the  land  protected  from  destructive  floods. 

12.  The  sun  burned  down  so  fiercely  that  the  people  were  faint- 
ing in  its  rays ;  it  seemed  as  if  they  must  die  of  heat,  and  yet  they 
were  obliged  to  go  on  with  their  work,  for  they  were  very  poor. 

13.  Then  the  people  ran  as  only  hill  folk  can  run,  for  they  knew 
that  in  a  landslip  you  must  climb  for  the  highest  ground  across  the 
valley. 

14.  Lord  God  of  Hosts,  be  with  us  yet. 
Lest  we  forget,  lest  we  forget ! 

15.  I  go  to  prepare  a  place  for  you,  that  where  I  am  there  ye 
may  be  also. 


186  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES 

LXXII.     ADVERBIAL    CLAUSES    OF    CONDITION    AND 
CONCESSION 

288.  Very  often  an  action  cannot  take  place  except  under 
a  certain  condition,  and  this  condition  is  often  expressed  in 
a  dependent  clause ;   as  in  the  sentence,  ''  A  man  can  buy  a 

^  vote  only  if  some  other  man  is  willing  to  sell  a  vote."  Here 
the  one  condition  under  which  a  man  can  buy  a  vote  is  told 
in  the  adverbial  clause,  if  some  other  man  is  willing  to  sell  a 
vote.  This  is  called  a  clause  of  condition.  It  is  generally  in- 
troduced by  ify  unless  (which  means  if  not),  provided,  or  pro- 
Ming.  In  the  illustration  what  does  the  clause  modify? 
What  is  the  use  of  only? 

289.  Sometimes  an  action  takes  place  in  spite  of  some- 
thing else,  and  we  tell  this  in  such  a  sentence  as  the  following, 
**  Though  He  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  Him.''  Here  the  fact 
that  I  trust  Him  is  true  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  He  may  slay 
me.  Such  a  clause  as  though  He  slay  me  is  called  a  clause 
of  concession,  for  it  concedes,  or  grants,  something  that 
seems  to  be  in  direct  opposition  to  what  is  in  the  principal 
clause.  What  does  it  modify  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the 
word  yet? 

A  clause  of  concession  is  generally  joined  by  the  subordinate 
conjunction  though,  or  by  some  such  word  as  notwithstand- 
ing, or  even  if,  which  means  though. 

Sometimes  though  has  a  correlative,  the  word  yet,  still,  or 
nevertheless  used  at  the  beginning  of  the  principal  clause. 

Summary.  —  A  clause  of  condition  answers  the  question 
provided  what?  It  tells  the  circumstance  under  which  the 
principal  statement  is  true. 

A  clause  of  concession  answers  the  question  in  spite  of 
what?  It  tells  the  circumstance  in  spite  of  which  the  prin- 
cipal statement  is  true. 


ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES  187 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  adverbial  clauses.  Tell  what  each 
clause  denotes,  what  it  modifies,  what  it  is  joined  by.  Ac- 
count for  the  punctuation. 

1.  If  your  everyday  language  is  not  fit  for  a  letter  or  for  print, 
it  is  not  fit  for  talk. 

2.  In  Bermuda,  if  you  are  in  want  of  some  choice  cologne,  do 
not  fail  to  ask  for  it  at  the  nearest  shoe  shop. 

3.  Though  delicate  in  his  tastes,  an  elephant  likes  quantity  as 
well  as  quaUty,  and  at  his  meals  makes  nothing  of  bales  of  hay  and 
gallons  of  water. 

4.  Though  the  weeping  willow  and  the  mountain  ash  could  not 
endure  the  cold  northeast  storms,  yet  the  sturdy  elms  grew  apace 
and  soon  spread  their  branches  far. 

5.  Half  the  pleasure  in  going  out  to  murder  another  man  with  a 
gun  would  be  wanting,  if  one  did  not  wear  feathers,  and  gold  lace, 
and  stripes  on  his  pantaloons. 

6.  There  is  something  queer  about  thoughts ;  you  cannot  have 
a  good  time  with  them  if  you  have  done  anything  naughty. 

7.  Though  watery  deserts  hold  apart  the  worlds  of  East  and  West, 
Still  beats  the  selfsame  human  heart  in  each  proud  Nation's 

breast. 

8.  If  our  forefathers  had  not  chosen  to  emigrate  to  America, 
we  should  now  be  English  people  ourselves. 

9.  Rebecca  was  so  slender  and  so  stiffly  starched  that  she  slid 
from  space  to  space  on  the  leather  cushions,  though  she  braced 
herself  against  the  middle  seat  with  her  feet,  and  extended  her 
cotton-gloved  hands  on  each  side. 

10.  If  the  men  were  so  wicked,  I'll  ask  my  papa 
How  he  dared  to  propose  to  my  darling  mamma. 

Was  he  like  the  rest  of  them  ?     Goodness  !     Who  knows  ? 
And  what  should  I  say  if  a  wretch  should  propose  ? 

11.  Though  he  looked  like  a  bird,  he  behaved  like  a  monkey. 

12.  Though  the  mills  of  God  grind  slowly,  yet  they  grind  exceed- 

ing small. 
Though  with  patience  he  stands  waiting,   with  exactness 
grinds  he  all. 

13.  If  the  scythes  cut  well  and  swing  merrily,  it  is  due  to  the  boy 
who  turned  the  grindstone. 

14.  If  a  man  write  little,  he  had  need  have  a  great  memory; 
if  he  confer  little,  he  had  need  have  a  present  wit ;   and  if  he  read 


188  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES 

little,  he  had  need  have  much  cunning  to  seem  to  know  that  he 
doth  not. 

15.  Men  must  work  and  women  must  weep. 

Though  storms  be  sudden  and  waters  deep. 

And  the  harbor  bar  be  moaning. 

Account  for  the  mode  of  the  verb  in  each  dependent  clause 
in  the  preceding  sentences. 

LXXIII.     ADVERBIAL    CLAUSES    OF    COMPARISON 

290.  Often  we  are  not  satisfied  to  say,  "  Cousin  John  is 
good.''  We  wish  to  tell  how  good  he  is,  and  a  common  way 
of  doing  this  is  by  means  of  a  comparison.  We  say,  ''  Cousin 
John  is  as  good  as  gold.''  Here  the  group  of  words  as  gold 
is  a  clause  with  the  word  is  omitted.  It  is  called  a  clause  of 
comparison.  It  denotes  an  equality  between  John's  goodness 
and  that  of  gold.  Since  this  clause  answers  the  question 
how  good?  it  must  modify  the  adjective  good. 

What  is  the  introductory  word  of  the  clause  of  comparison? 

291.  Sometimes  we  compare  two  things  and  yet  denote 
an  inequality  between  them;  as  in  the  sentence,  ''  The  river 
is  bluer  than  the  sky."  Here  the  clause  of  comparison  is 
introduced  by  the  subordinating  conjunction  than.  It  modi- 
fies the  word  bluer.  We  know  this  because  it  is  the  word 
bluer  that  needs  the  clause,  and  without  the  word  bluer  the 
clause  would  not  be  in  the  sentence  at  all. 

Notice  that  a  clause  of  equality  modifies  an  adjective  in 
the  positive  degree,  while  a  clause  of  inequality  modifies  an 
adjective  in  the  comparative  degree. 

292.  A  clause  of  comparison  may  modify  an  adverb  as 
well  as  an  adjective,  as  in  these  sentences :  — 

The  old  man  moved  as  slowly  as  a  cloud. 
More  swiftly  than  eagles,  his  coursers  they  flew. 


ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES  189 

Note.  —  The  adverb  rather  is  seldom  used  without  being  modi- 
fied by  a  clause  of  comparison ;  as,  "Henry  Clay  said  that  he  would 
rather  be  right  than  be  president."  When  we  supply  the  words 
understood,  the  clause  reads,  than  he  would  he  president. 

Complete  the  clauses  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

Some  people  would  rather  have  money  than  brains. 
I  should  rather  earn  a  college  education  than  go  without  it. 
A  wise  American  would  rather  go  to  Yellowstone  Park  than  to 
Switzerland. 

Summary.  —  A  clause  of  comparison  tells  the  degree  of 
some  quality  or  quantity  by  pointing  out  a  likeness  or  a 
difference. 

A  clause  of  comparison  pointing  out  a  likeness  is  intro- 
duced by  as,  and  modifies  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  in  the 
positive  degree. 

A  clause  of  comparison  pointing  out  a  difference  is  intro- 
duced by  than,  and  modifies  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  in  the 
comparative  degree. 

A  clause  of  comparison  is  seldom  completely  expressed. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  clauses  of  comparison.  Tell 
what  they  denote,  what  they  modify,  and  what  they  are  in- 
troduced by. 

1.  Sitting  up  on  the  driver's  high  seat  is  almost  as  good  as 
climbing  the  meeting-house  steeple. 

2.  The  muscles  of  his  brawny  arms 
Are  strong  as  iron  bands.  * 

3.  The  loons  could  dive  quicker  than  the  eagle  could  swoop  and 
strike. 

4.  Gertrude  was  prouder  than  ever  when  the  president  of  the 
college  said,  "Your  mother  is  handsomer  than  you  will  ever  be, 
young  lady." 

5.  The  hearts  that  were  thumping  like  ships  on  the  rocks 
Beat  as  quiet  and  steady  as  meeting-house  clocks. 

6.  Truth  is  stranger  than  fiction. 


190  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSES 

7.  I  had  rather  have  a  fool  to  make  me  meny  than  experience 
to  make  me  sad. 

8.  Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy  flax, 

Her  cheeks  like  the  dawn  of  day, 
Her  bosom  white  as  the  hawthorn  buds. 
That  ope  in  the  month  of  May. 

9.  One  syllable  of  woman's  speech  can  dissolve  more  love  than 
a  man's  heart  can  hold. 

10.  I  am  nearer  my  home  to-day 
Than  I  ever  have  been  before. 

11.  Whiter  than  snow  were  his  locks,  and  his  cheeks  were  as 
brown  as  the  oak  leaves. 

12.  A  steed  as  black  as  the  steeds  of  night 
Was  seen  to  pass  as  with  eagle  flight. 

13.  Weeds  are  sure  to  grow  quicker  in  my  garden  than  anywhere 
else. 

14.  Dark  as  winter  was  the  flow 
Of  Iser  rolling  rapidly. 

15.  I  should  rather  see  the  friezes  of  the  Parthenon  molder  to 
dust  under  the  blue  veil  of  the  Grecian  atmosphere  than  have 
them  preserved  in  the  grand  halls  of  the  British  Museum. 

16.  The  huge  body  of  the  elephant  needs  less  sleep  than  any- 
thing else  that  lives. 

293.  Since  the  predicate  is  usually  omitted  in  clauses  of 
comparison,  it  follows  that  these  clauses  often  consist  of  only 
two  words;  as,  "  I  am  as  old  as  Mary."  "  I  am  older  than 
Mary."  One  of  these  words  is  the  connective,  and  the  other 
is  often  the  subject  of  the  clause.  When  the  subject  is  a 
pronoun,  we  must  be  careful  to  use  the  nominative  form. 
We  should  say,  "  Are  you  older  than  If  than  he?  than  she? 

Exercise  1.  —  Fill  the  blank  in  each  of  these  sentences. 
Then  supply  the  words  omitted,  and  thus  show  that  you  have 
chosen  the  right  pronouns :  — 

1.  Our  parents  are  wiser  than  {we  or  us). 

2.  You  are  not  always  so  careful  as  {she  or  her), 

3.  Who  knows  the  day  better  than  {me  or  /)  ? 

4.  What  I     You  are  stronger  than  {who  or  whom)  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES  191 

5.  The  Preston  girls  were  just  as  friendly  as  (me  or  /). 

6.  No  man  could  be  more  faithful  than  (him  or  he). 

7.  Who  stands  higher  in  this  city  than  (they  or  them), 

8.  Are  you  older  or  younger  than  (her  or  she)  ? 

9.  Well,  perhaps  I  am  not  so  polite  as  (he  or  him). 
10.  Our  geese  are  whiter  than  (them  or  they). 

Exercise  2.  —  Justify  the  case  of  the  italicized  pronoun 
in  each  of  these  sentences :  — 

1.  Jessie  likes  Julia  as  well  as  me. 

2.  I  found  her  brother  more  easily  than  her. 

3.  I  expect  an  angel  sooner  than  them. 

LXXIV.     ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES 

294.  We  are  ready  now  to  analyze  sentences  containing 
adverbial  clauses.  In  analyzing  such  sentences  we  should 
state  as  soon  as  we  come  to  an  adverbial  clause,  (1)  what  it 
denotes  and  (2)  what  part  of  speech  its  introductory  word  is. 
We  should  not  analyze  any  dependent  clause  in  detail,  how- 
ever, until  we  have  completed  our  analysis  of  the  principal 
clause. 

Model.  —  The  lion  fixed  his  great  hind  claws  in  the  softer 
skin  of  the  crocodile^ s  throat,  and  ripped  it  open  as  one  would 
rip  a  glove. 

This  is  a  complex,  declarative  sentence. 

The  subject  is  the  lion.  The  predicate  is  fixed  his  great,  hind 
claws  in  the  softer  shin  of  the  crocodile's  throat,  and  ripped  it 
open  as  one  would  rip  a  glove. 

The  predicate  is  compound,  the  two  parts  being  joined  by 
the  conjunction  and.  The  first  predicate  verb  is  fixed.  It 
is  completed  by  the  direct  object  his  great  hind  claws,  and 
then  modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase  in  the  softer  skin 
of  the  crocodile's  throat.  Tne  base  word  of  the  object  is 
claws;  it  is  modified  by  the  adjectives  hind  and  great,  and  by 
the  possessive  pronoun  his.     The  base  word  of  the  object  of 


192  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES 

the  preposition  in  is  skin.  It  is  modified  by  the  adjectives 
softer  and  the,  and  by  the  prepositional  phrase  of  the  crocodile's 
throat.  The  base  word  of  the  object  of  the  preposition  of  is 
throat;  it  is  modified  by  the  possessive  noun  crocodile's,  which 
is  modified  by  the  adjective  the. 

The  second  predicate  verb  is  ripped.  It  is  completed  by  the 
direct  object  it  and  the  objective  complement  open,  and  then 
modified  by  the  adverbial  clause  of  manner  as  one  would  rip 
a  glove,  which  is  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction  as. 

The  subject  of  this  clause  is  the  adjective  pronoun  one. 
The  predicate  is  would  rip  a  glove.  The  predicate  verb  is 
would  rip.     It  is  completed  by  the  direct  object  a  glove. 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences.  When  you 
write  the  analysis  of  a  sentence,  use  abbreviations,  and  in- 
stead of  writing  out  a  group  of  words  in  full,  as  is  done  in 
the  model,  write  only  the  first  and  last  words  of  the  group 
with  a  dash  between  them.  Be  sure  to  underline  all  words 
quoted  from  the  sentence. 

1.  He  looks  the  whole  world  in  the  face, 
For  he  owes  not  any  man. 

2.  The  young  lion  was  growing  so  fast  that  the  milk  of  three 
goats  was  scarcely  sufficient  for  him. 

3.  When  the  glorious  sun  is  set, 
When  the  grass  with  dew  is  wet. 
Then  you  show  your  little  light. 

4.  When  Charles  was  studying  shorthand,  his  mother  read 
sermons  to  him  for  an  hour  every  morning,  so  that  he  might  have 
practice  in  the  writing  of  long  words. 

5.  If  you  save  the  pennies,  the  dollars  will  take  care  of  them- 
selves. 

6.  Where  the  purple  violet  grows, 
Where  the  bubbling  water  flows, 
Where  the  grass  is  fresh  and  fine. 
Pretty  cow,  go  there  and  dine. 

7.  Tommy,  though  he  was  getting  a  big  boy,  retained  some  of 
the  habits  of  a  baby. 


ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES  193 

8.  I  was  sitting  on  the  top  rail  of  the  front  fence,  when  a  party  of 
gypsies  went  by  on  their  way  to  a  camp. 

9.  The  day  is  done,  and  the  darkness 

Falls  from  the  wings  of  night, 
As  a  feather  is  wafted  downward 
From  an  eagle  in  his  flight. 

10.  Whenever  you  see  many  drones,  you  will  find  plenty  of 
young  bees. 

11.  After  the  robins  have  pinched  and  shaken  all  the  life  out  of 
an  earthworm,  as  Italian  cooks  pound  all  the  spirit  out  of  a  steak, 
and  then  gulped  him,  they  stand  up  in  honest  self-confidence, 
expand  their  red  waistcoats  with  a  virtuous  air,  and  outface  you  with 
their  bold  calm  eyes. 

12.  Moti  Guj,  the  elephant,  never  trampled  the  life  out  of  his 
master  Deesa,  for,  after  the  beating  was  over,  Deesa  would  embrace 
his  trunk,  and  call  him  his  love  and  his  life  and  the  liver  of  his  soul, 
and  give  him  some  liquor. 

13.  If  imitation  be  the  sincerest  form  of  fiattery,  the  mischief 
of  the  monkey  should  be  regarded  more  leniently. 

14.  I  liked  doUs  well  enough,  though  my  assortment  was  not  a 
choice  one. 

15. .  Her  nails  were  so  hard  that  they  would  yield  to  the  scissors 
only  after  a  day's  soaking  in  hot  soapsuds. 

16.   His  words  were  shed  softer  than  leaves  from  the  pine, 
And  they  fell  on  Sir  Launfal  as  snows  on  the  brine. 


LXXV.     ADJECTIVE    CLAUSES 

295 .  We  learn  ed  in  Lesson  XX  that  a  dependent  clause  often 
has  the  use  of  an  adjective,  that  is,  it  modifies  a  noun ;  as  in 
the  sentence,  '^  This  is  the  house  that  Jack  built."  Such  a 
clause  as  that  Jack  huilt  is  called  an  adjective  clause.     Why? 

296.  An  adjective  clause  may  be  used  for  two  different 
purposes. 

(1)  It  may  serve  to  point  out  a  particular  person,  place, 

or  thing;  as,  ^'  This  is  the  maiden  all  forlorn  that  milked  the 

cow  with  the  crumpled  horn."     Here  the  clause  tells  what 

particular  maiden  is  meant.     A  clause  of  this  sort  is  called  a 

Kimball's  enq.  gram.  — 13 


194  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES 

restrictive  clause,  because  it  limits,  or  restricts,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  word  it  modifies. 

(2)  An  adjective  clause  may  serve  merely  to  bring  in  a 
new  thought,  something  that  is  worth  telling,  of  course,  but 
still  not  necessary  to  the  truth  of  the  sentence ;  as,  ^'  My 
father  had  ten  cows,  which  I  had  to  escort  to  and  from  pasture 
night  and  morning.^'  This  clause  does  not  tell  what  particu- 
lar cows  my  father  had,  but  merely  tells  an  additional  fact 
about  them.  Such  a  clause  as  this  is  called  an  unrestrictive 
clause.     It  is  set  off  by  a  comma. 

297.  A  restrictive  clause  is  usually  necessary  to  the  truth 
of  a  sentence;  as,  ''A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be 
hid,^^  '*A  prince  that  is  a  tyrant  is  unfit  to  rule.'' 

To  find  out  whether  a  clause  is  restrictive  or  not,  deter- 
mine first  what  word  it  modifies ;  then  ask  yourself  the  ques- 
tion, Did  the  author  put  this  clause  into  the  sentence  to  point 
out  a  particular  object? 

Could  such  a  term  as  The  Declaration  of  Independence,  my 
mother's  father,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  the  planet  Mars,  or  Boston 
be  modified  by  a  restrictive  adjective  clause? 

Summary.  —  An  adjective  clause  is  a  dependent  clause  that 
modifies  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 

A  restrictive  adjective  clause  is  one  that  points  out  a  par- 
ticular person,  place,  or  thing.  A  restrictive  clause  is  not 
set  off  by  commas. 

An  unrestrictive  adjective  clause  is  one  that  merely  adds 
a  new  thought  to  the  sentence.  An  unrestrictive  clause  is 
set  off  by  a  comma. 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  the  adjective  clauses.  Tell  what 
they  modify.  Then  find  out  whether  they  are  restrictive 
or  not,  and  why. 

Note.  —  Always  test  an  adjective  clause  first  to  find  out  whether 
it  is  restrictive.  If  you  decide  that  it  is  not  restrictive,  then  it  must 
be  unrestrictive. 


ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES  195 

1.  Charley  Marden,  whose  father  had  promised  to  cane  him  if 
he  ever  set  foot  on  sail  or  row  boat,  came  down  to  the  wharf  in  a 
sour-grape  humor  to  see  us  off. 

2.  A  sharp  tongue  is  the  only  edged  tool  that  grows  keener  with 
constant  use. 

3.  From  one  corner  of  St.  Paul's  churchyard  runs  the  lively 
street  called  Cheapside,  from  which  John  Gilpin  started  on  his 
famous  ride. 

4.  The  reason  why  the  women  and  children  slept  upon  the  floor 
was  their  fear  lest  the  Indians  should  fire  through  the  windows  and 
kill  them  in  their  beds. 

5.  The  king  whose  despotic  power  was  felt  over  the  entire  extent 
<5f  the  cattle  range  was  an  old  gray  wolf. 

6.  The  monks  who  put  peas  in  their  shoes  as  a  penance  do  not 
suffer  more  than  the  country  boy  in  his  penitential  Sunday  shoes. 

7.  There  is  a  girl  in  the  carriage,  who  looks  out  at  John,  who  is 
suddenly  aware  that  his  trousers  are  patched  on  each  knee  and  in 
two  places  behind. 

8.  He  could  see  the  pale  and  naked  trunk  of  a  pine  tree,  which 
the  lightning  had  shattered. 

"9.  The  night  that  was  so  favorable  to  the  wild  rabbits  was 
favorable  also  to  the  fox,  the  wildcat,  and  the  weasel. 

10.  The  only  days  that  I  can  remember  in  Yonkers  were  hot. 

11.  All  things  that  are  on  earth  shall  wholly  pass  away, 
Except  the  love  of  God,  which  shall  live  and  last  for  aye. 

12.  Sleek,  unwieldy  porkers  were  grunting  in  the  repose  and 
abundance  of  their  pens,  whence  sallied  forth,  now  and  then,  troops 
of  sucking  pigs,  as  if  to  snuff  the  air. 

Exercise  2.  —  Write  sentences  containing  restrictive  ad- 
jective clauses  pointing  out  a  certain  river,  a  certain  boy,  a 
certain  bridge,  a  certain  house,  a  certain  day. 

Write  sentences  containing  unrestrictive  clauses  that  tell 
something  about  the  moon,  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
Salt  Lake  City,  the  Sistine  Madonna,  the  Eiffel  Tower. 

Write  sentences  containing  adjective  clauses  introduced 
by  the  conjunctive  adverbs  when,  where,  and  why.  (See 
Lesson  LXVI).  Tell  whether  your  clauses  are  restrictive  or 
unrestrictive. 


196  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 

LXXVI.     RELATIVE    PRONOUNS 

298.  Just  as  an  adverbial  clause  is  joined  to  what  it  modi- 
fies by  a  conjunctive  adverb  or  a  subordinate  conjunction, 
so  an  adjective  clause  must  be  joined  to  the  noun  it  modifiea 
by  some  connecting  word. 

In  Lesson  LXVI  it  was  shown  that  this  word  may  be  a 
conjunctive  adverb,  as  in  the  sentence,  '^  I  can  never  forget 
the  night  when  I  first  heard  the  whippoorwill  sing/^  What 
is  the  clause  here?  What  does  it  modify?  How  is  it  joined 
to  the  word  that  it  modifies  ? 

299.  Most  adjective  clauses  are  introduced  by  some  other 
word  than  a  conjunctive  adverb.  In  the  sentence,  '^  The 
hand  that  rocks  the  cradle  rules  the  world, ^'  the  adjective 
clause  that  rocks  the  cradle  is  joined  to  the  noun  hand^  which 
it  modifies,  by  the  word  that.  This  word  is  used  as  subject 
of  the  verb  rockSy  and  really  means  hand.  Since  it  takes  the 
place  of  a  noun,  it  is  a  pronoun ;  and  since  this  noun,  or  ante- 
cedent, precedes  the  pronoun,  we  say  that  the  pronoim  relates 
to  its  antecedent,  and  we  call  it  a  relative  pronoun. 

300.  The  relative  pronouns  that  introduce  adjective 
clauses  are  who,  whichj  and  that. 

Who  has  three  case  forms :  nominative,  who;  possessive, 
whose;  objective,  whom. 

Which  has  the  possessive  form  whose;  that  has  no  posses- 
sive form. 

Which  and  that  do  not  change  their  form  for  the  objective 
case. 

301.  A  relative  pronoun  always  has  a  use  in  the  adjective 
clause  that  it  introduces.  This  is  the  same  use  that  the  ante- 
cedent would  have  if  it  were  used  in  place  of  the  pronoun. 

The  four  common  uses  are :  — 

(1)  Subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  He  who  fights  and  runs  away 
may  live  to  fight  another  day." 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  197 

(2)  Object  of  a  verb;  as,  ''This  is  the  day  that  the  Lord 
hath  made/' 

(3)  Object  of  a  preposition ;  as,  "I  saw  the  room  in  which 
Shakespeare  was  born/' 

Note.  —  Sometimes  the  pronoun  comes  before  the  preposition ; 
as,  "  The  buggy  that  we  rode  in  was  low  and  Kght." 

(4)  Possessive  modifier ;  as,  "  Any  boy  whose  memory  is 
good  can  learn  a  history  lesson/' 

302.  The  relative  pronoun  that  introduces  only  restrictive 
adjective  clauses.  The  pronouns  who,  whose,  whom,  and 
which  may  introduce  either  restrictive  or  unrestrictive  clauses. 

303.  Who  has  for  its  antecedent  the  name  of  some  person ; 
which  has  for  its  antecedent  the  name  of  some  thing.  The 
antecedent  of  that  may  be  the  name  of  a  person  or  a  thing. 

304.  The  word  hut  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun  as 
a  substitute  for  the  two  words  that  not.  Instead  of  saying, 
"  There  is  no  day  that  has  not  an  end,"  we  may  say,  "  There 
is  no  day  hut  has  an  end."  This  is  a  better  sentence  than  the 
first  because  it  contains  only  one  negative  word. 

305.  The  word  as  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun  fol- 
lowing the  words  such,  same,  or  as  mxiny.    We  say,  — 

I  like  such  flowers  as  you  sent  me. 

Your  dress  is  the  same  color  as  mine. 

I  will  take  as  many  apples  as  will  fill  this  basket. 

I  want  such  a  chair  as  you  are  sitting  in  now. 

In  each  of  the  sentences  above,  what  is  the  use  of  the  rela- 
tive pronoun  as  in  the  clause  that  it  introduces  ? 

Summary.  —  A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  refers  to  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  and  joins  to  it  an  adjective  clause. 

The  relative  pronouns  that  introduce  adjective  clauses 
are  who,  which,  and  that. 

As  and  hut  are  sometimes  used  as  relative  pronouns. 


198  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS 

306.   When  we  parse  a  relative  pronoun  we  tell,  — 

(1)  Its  antecedent. 

(2)  What  adjective  clause  it  joins  to  its  antecedent. 

(3)  Its  case. 

(4)  Its  use  in  the  adjective  clause. 

Exercise  1.  —  Parse  all  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences :  — 

1.  In  came  the  six  young  followers  whose  hearts  the  Misses 
Fezziwig  broke. 

2.  There  were  the  wide  sweeps  of  forest  through  which  the 
winter  tempests  howled,  upon  which  hung  the  haze  of  summer 
heat,  over  which  the  great  shadows  of  summer  clouds  traveled. 

3.  Susie  was  a  well-behaved  child,  who  took  care  of  her  clothes 
and  played  quiet  games. 

4.  And  now  the  dandelion  is  a  pest  —  the  same  yellow  dande- 
lion with  its  long,  bitter,  milky  stem  that  we  children  sought  for 
in  the  shady  fence  corners  to  make  into  spiral  curls. 

5.  Buffers  had  a  small  moustache,  which  he  fostered  much,  and 
a  cane  with  which  he  was  not  yet  very  familiar. 

6.  She  bade  me  good-by  as  if  I  were  a  friend  of  her  family  whom 
she  would  gladly  meet  again. 

7.  There  is  only  one  bird  that  terrifies  the  crow,  and  that  is  the 
owl. 

8.  Solomon  John  proposed  that  they  should  open  the  window,  a 
thing  which  Agamemnon  could  easily  do  with  his  long  arms. 

9.  There  was  one  lady  whose  conversation  at  the  best  of  times 
made  my  mother  sleepy. 

;      10.   The  two  men  shared  those  mysterious  rites  of  smoking  and 
I  shaving  and  discussing  stocks  which  occupy  men  when  they  are  left 
to  themselves. 

11.  The  turkey  cock,  who  had  been  born  into  the  world  with 
spurs,  and  thought  he  was  a  king,  puffed  himself  out  like  a  ship 
with  full  sails,  and  flew  at  the  duckling. 

12.  In  a  few  moments  Ned  arrived  at  a  small  open  glade  in  the 
middle  of  the  forest,  in  which,  to  his  horror,  he  saw  a  lion  upon  the 
body  of  a  man,  whom  he  seized  by  the  throat,  while  Nero  stood 
within  a  few  yards,  baying  him  furiously. 

He  lives  longest  who  does  most. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  199 

Exercise  2.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  No  time  is  like  the  old  time  when  you  and  I  were  young, 
When  the  buds  of  April  blossomed,  and  the  birds  of  spring- 
time sung. 

2.  No  place  is  like  the  old  place,  where  you  and  I  were  born, 
Where  we  lifted  first  our  eyelids  on  the  splendor  of  the  morn. 

3.  No  friend  is  like  the  old  friend,  who  has  shared  our  morning 

days. 

4.  At  the  teachers'  meeting,  which  she  regularly  attended  with 
her  mother,  Gertrude  saw  the  pale-faced  little  lady  whom  the  children 
called  a  "Grahamite." 

5.  The  old  broken  gate  which  a  gentleman  would  not  tolerate 
an  hour  upon  his  grounds  is  a  great  beauty  in  the  picture  which 
hangs  in  his  parlor. 

6.  Often  the  road  passes  between  lofty  walls  of  solid  rock,  from 
the  crevices  of  which  all  lovely  growths  are  springing. 

7.  Read  from  some  humbler  poet. 
Whose  songs  gushed  from  his  heart, 
As  rain  from  the  clouds  in  summer. 
Or  tears  from  the  eyelids  start. 

8.  Michel  was  a  vivacious,  lean  little  Frenchman,  who  fulfilled 
the  duties  of  a  chambermaid  very  adroitly. 

9.  The  first  thing  that  my  pet  starling  imitated  was  the  rum- 
bling of  carts  and  carriages  on  the  street. 

10.  In  one  corner  of  the  fireplace  sat  a  superannuated  crony, 
whom  the  sexton  called  John  Ange,  and  who  had  been  his  companion 
from  childhood. 

11.  The  good  ship  Humher  is  taking  home  a  regiment  whose  term 
of  service  has  expired. 

12.  Madame  took  for  breakfast  two  fresh  eggs,  which  her  two 
hens  laid  for  her  every  morning  with  the  perfect  regularity  that  is 
the  politeness  of  all  well-bred  poultry. 

13.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck. 

Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. 

14.  Lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven,  where  neither 
moth  nor  rust  doth  corrupt,  and  where  thieves  do  not  break  through 
and  steal. 

15.  Sycamore  Ridge  might  have  been  one  of  the  dreary  villages 
that  dot  the  wind-swept  plain  to-day,  instead  of  the  bright,  prosper- 
ous elm-shaded  town  that  it  is. 


200  NOUN  CLAUSES 

LXXVII.     NOUN    CLAUSES 

307.  We  have  seen  that  a  dependent  clause  may  have  the 
use  of  an  adverb  or  of  an  adjective.  It  may  also  have  an- 
other use,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  sentence,  ^'  Whatever 
Midas  touched]  with  his  finger  imniediately  gHstened  and 
grew  yellow."  If  we  ask  the  question,  What  glistened  and 
grew  yellow?  we  get  the  answer.  Whatever  Midas  touched  with 
his  finger;  hence  this  group  of  words  must  be  the  subject. 
But  this  group  is  a  clause,  for  it  contains  the  subject  Midas 
and  the  verb  touched,  A  clause  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
predicate  is  used  like  a  noun,  hence  we  call  it  a  noun  clause. 

308.  The  noun  clause  has  several  other  uses  of  a  noun  be- 
sides that  of  subject.     It  may  be,  — 

(1)  Object  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  I  think  that  life  would  be  very 
dull  without  meals." 

(2)  Subjective  complement;  as,  '^  The  sad  part  of  this 
tale  is  that  the  trouble  was  not  with  poor  little  Quackalina's 
eyes  at  all." 

(3)  In  apposition ;  as,  "  He  had  a  theory  that  the  big 
horned  owl  might  be  tamed."  Here  the  clause  explains  the 
noun  theory y  telling  exactly  what  the  theory  is.  This  may 
seem  at  first  like  an  adjective  clause,  but  there  is  a  clear  differ- 
ence. We  can  make  a  sentence  by  putting  the  verb  is  be- 
tween the  noun  theory  and  the  clause.     This  shows  that  the 

\two  are  identical,  but  we  cannot  do  this  with  the  noun  theory 
and  an  adjective  clause,  as  in  this  sentence,  "  I  do  not  be- 
lieve in  the  theo|:y;  that  he  sets  forth  in  his  book." 

(4)  Object  of  a 'preposition;  as,  '/Aladdin's  mother  lis- 
tened with  surprise  to  what  her  son  told  her."  If  you  ask 
the  question,  listened  to  what?  you  get  the  answer,  what  her 
son  told  her.  Therefore,  the  group  of  words  what  her  son  told 
her,  which  is  a  dependent  proposition,  must  be  the  object  of 
the  preposition  to. 


NOUN  CLAUSES  201 

(5)  Some  adjectives,  like  anxious,  aware y  careful ,  certain j 
^lad,  hopeful,  sorry,  and  sure,  especially  when  used  as  subjec- 
tive complements,  are  modified  by  noun  clauses  that  take 
the  place  of  adverbial  prepositional  phrases.     We  may  say,  — 

I  am  sure  of  his  election. 

I  am  sure  that  he  will  he  elected. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  adjective  sure  is  modified  by  the 
phrase  of  his  election.  In  the  second  sentence  the  adjective 
sure  is  modified  by  the  noun  clause  that  he  will  he  elected, 
which  answers  the  question  si^re  of  what?  This  may  be  called 
the  adverbial  use  of  the  noun  clause. 

309.  Often,  when  a  noun  clause  is  used  as  subject,  it  is 
placed  after  the  predicate,  and  the  sentence  begins  with  the 
word  it;  as,  '^  It  is  curious  that  almost  every  nation  on  earth 
has  some  particular  traditions  regarding  the  dog.''  If  we  ask 
the  question,  what  is  curious?  the  answer  is  not  it,  for  that 
tells  nothing,  but  the  clause.  The  word  it  is  called  an  an- 
ticipative  subject,  because  it  comes  before  the  real  subject, 
and  signifies  also  to  the  reader  that  the  real  subject  may  be 
expected  after  the  predicate. 

310.  The  tense  of  the  verb  in  a  noun  clause  isdetermined 
partly  by  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  and  partly  by  the 
tense  of  the  verb  in  the  independent  clause.  What  is  the 
meaning  of  each  of  the  following  sentences,  and  what  is  the 
tense  of  each  verb  ? 

I  understand  that  he  builds  bridges. 

I  understand  that  he  will  build  the  bridge. 

I  understand  that  he  has  built  the  bridge. 

I  understood  that  he  builds  bridges. 

I  understood  that  he  would  build  the  bridge. 

I  understood  that  he  had  built  the  bridge. 

Summary.  —  A  noun  clause  is  a  dependent  clause  having 
the  use  of  a  noun. 


202  NOUN  CLAUSES 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  adverbially  to  modify  cer- 
tain adjectives. 

The  word  it  may  be  used  as  an  anticipative  subject  to 
throw  the  real  subject,  a  noun  clause,  after  the  verb. 

Exercise  1.  —  Select  all  the  noun  clauses,  and  explain  the 
use  of  each. 

1.  Just  then  a  shout  from  the  boys'  tent  proclaimed  that  the 
twins  were  awake. 

2.  There  were  two  summer  houses  at  one  end  of  what  we  called 
a  park. 

3.  The  probabihty  is  very  great  that  the  Vikings  did  land  on  our 
coast. 

4.  What  made  the  Uttle  silver  teapot  so  alluring  was  that  it 
held  just  enough  for  two. 

5.  Be  careful  how  you  handle  my  razor. 

6.  It  so  happened  that  one  of  his  neighbors  had  two  very  beau- 
tiful daughters. 

7.  I  discovered  that  the  world  was  not  created  exclusively  on 
my  account. 

8.  Mr.  Cobb  had  a  feehng  that  he  was  being  hurried  from  peak 
to  peak  of  a  mountain  range  without  time  to  take  a  good  breath  in 
between. 

9.  That  supply  follows  demand  is  a  sure  rule  of  poHtical 
economy. 

10.  The  truth  is  that  my  dancing  days  are  over. 

11.  In  choosing  words  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  there  is  not  a 
really  poor  one  in  any  language. 

12.  Are  you  aware  that  Phio  has  gone  to  the  hospital  ? 

13.  On  the  very  day  of  his  inauguration  Jefferson  took  a  step 
toward  what  he  caUed  simplicity,  and  what  his  opponents  thought 
vulgarity. 

14.  I  knew  that  I  was  born  at  the  North,  but  I  hoped  that  no- 
body in  New  Orleans  would  find  it  out. 

15.  The  Austrian  commander  noticed  this  peculiarity  about  the 
firing,  —  that  every  shot  seemed  to  come  from  the  same  place. 

16.  That  the  monkeys  had  stolen  the  snuffbox  was  obvious, 
for  both  of  them  were  seized  with  convulsions  of  sneezing. 

17.  I  am  glad  that  you  are  going  to  talk  on  the  peace  movement. 


INTRODUCTORY  WORDS  OF  NOUN  CLAUSES     203 

18.  The  disadvantage  of  being  a  boy  is  that  it  does  not  last  long 
enough. 

19.  We  are  all  sorry  that  some  days  never  come  but  once. 

Exercise  2. — Justify  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  noun 
clause  in  each  of  these  sentences  — 

I  know  that  fever  produces  thirst. 

I  knew  that  tennis  is  a  healthful  sport. 

I  know  that  the  lake  will  freeze  to-night. 

I  knew  that  the  lake  would  freeze  last. night. 

I  know  that  my  turn  comes  next. 

I  knew  that  my  turn  came  next. 

I  know  that  she  has  heard  the  news. 

I  knew  that  she  had  heard  the  news. 

LXXVni.     INTRODUCTORY    WORDS    OF   NOUN 
CLAUSES 

311.  We  have  learned  that  adjective  clauses  and  adverbial 
clauses  are  joined  to  what  they  modify  by  some  connective. 
This  word  also  serves  to  show  that  the  clause  it  introduces 
is  not  independent  but  dependent. 

The  noun  clause  also  is  introduced  by  some  connecting 
word.  In  the  sentence,  ^^  That  you  have  wronged  me  doth 
appear  in  this/'  the  first  word  that  could  be  placed  nowhere 
in  the  clause  except  at  the  beginning,  and  it  reveals  at  once 
that  the  clause  it  introduces  is  dependent. 

312.  The  introductory  word  of  a  noun  clause  may  be  sev- 
eral parts  of  speech : 

(1)  The  subordinating  conjunctions  if,  that,  and  whether. 

Go  and  see  if  your  father  is  coming  home. 

I  believe  that  all  men  are  created  free  and  equal. 

I  do  not  know  whether  Mary  is  a  suffragist  or  a  suffragette. 

Often  the  connective  that  is  omitted;  as,  '^You  said  you 
were  coming  home  early/'  ''  David  thought  Dora  was  an 
angel." 


204     INTRODUCTORY  WORDS  OF  NOUN   CLAUSES 

(2)  The  interrogative  pronouns  who,  whose,  whom,  which, 
what. 

Nobody  knows  who  first  wrote  the  story  of  little  Red  Riding  Hood. 

Can  you  tell  whose  picture  this  is  ? 

We  cannot  tell  whom  the  baby  looks  like. 

Have  you  heard  which  came  out  ahead  ? 

Tell  me  what  you  like,  and  I  will  tell  you  what  you  are. 

In  sentences  of  this  sort  the  interrogative  pronoun  is  not 
used  in  a  direct  question,  but  always  when  a  noun  clause  is 
introduced  by  an  interrogative  pronoun  there  is  an  indirect, 
or  implied  question.  Make  a  direct  question  out  of  each  of 
the  noun  clauses  above. 

The  interrogative  pronoun  always  has  a  use  in  the  noun 
clause  that  it  introduces,  just  as  the  relative  pronoun  has  a 
use  in  the  adjective  clause.  What  is  the  use  of  each  inter- 
rogative pronoun  in  the  preceding  sentences? 

(3)  The  relative  pronoun  what.  This  pronoun  is  always 
equivalent  to  the  two  words  that  which,  and  there  is  no  ques- 
tion implied  in  a  noun  clause  introduced  by  this  pronoun. 

What  Martha  told  me  about  the  will  did  not  surprise  me. 
Getting  dinner  is  what  takes  most  of  my  time. 

(4)  The  indefinite  pronouns  whoever,  whichever,  whatever,  etc. 

Whoever  came  was  made  welcome. 
Take  whichever  you  like. 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 

What  is  the  use  of  each  noun  clause  in  these  sentences? 
What  is  the  use  in  the  clause  of  each  indefinite  pronoun  ? 

(5)  The  conjunctive  adverbs  when,  where,  why,  how, 
whither,  etc. 

Do  you  know  when  the  steamer  sails  ? 

I  cannot  remember  where  I  put  my  spectacles. 

Can  you  tell  why  he  never  wears  a  muffler  ? 

I  never  understood  how  the  purse  was  returned. 

It  is  strange  how  the  memory  clings  to  some  things. 

Who  knows  whither  the  clouds  have  fled  ? 


INTRODUCTORY  WORDS  OF  NOUN   CLAUSES     205 

The  adverb  introducing  a  noun  clause  modifies  some  word 
within  the  clause,   usually  the  verb. 

Summary.  —  The  noun  clause  may  be  introduced  by 
(1)  a  subordinate  conjunction,  (2)  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
(3)  the  relative  pronoun  what,  (4)  an  indefinite  pronoun, 
(5)  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  noun  clauses,  and  tell  the  use 
of  each  in  the  sentence.  Tell  the  introductory  word  of  each 
clause,  and  its  use  in  the  clause. 

1.  What  disgusted  them  still  more  was  that  Bluebeard  had 
already  been  married  several  times,  and  no  one  knew  what  had 
become  of  his  wives. 

2.  Ernest  was  always  ready  to  believe  in  whatever  seemed 
beautiful  and  good. 

3.  We  asked  the  boatman  why  he  did  not  speak  Gaelic  to  his 
dog  as  well  as  to  his  family. 

4.  Whoever  has  been  hypnotized  by  a  book  agent  will  under- 
stand how  mother  felt  about  the  spectacles  that  she  bought  and 
could  not  wear. 

5.  I  wonder  if  Burbank  ever  really  produced  a  deodorized 
onion. 

6.  Shakespeare's  chair  stands  in  the  chimney  nook  of  a  small 
gloomy  chamber,  just  behind  what  was  his  father's  shop. 

7.  Whatever  was  iron  or  brass  in  other  houses  was  silver  or 
gold  in  this. 

8.  The  apothecary  listened  as  calmly  as  he  could  to  the  story  of 
how  Mrs.  Peterkin  had  put  salt  in  her  coffee. 

9.  The  lady  from  Philadelphia  asked  where  the  milk  was  kept. 

10.  Fortunately,  what  God  expects  of  us  is  not  the  best,  but  our 
best. 

11.  Why  this  spot  was  selected  for  a  mansion  was  always  a 
mystery,  unless  it  was  that  the  newcomer  desired  to  isolate  himself 
completely. 

12.  Whether  the  Indians  were  not  early  risers,  or  whether  they 
were  away  just  then  on  a  warpath  I  couldn't  determine. 

13.  What  passes  for  laziness  in  a  boy  is  very  often  an  unwilling- 
ness to  farm  in  a  particular  way. 


206  REVIEW  OF  CLAUSES 

14.  The  direction  of  a  man's  life  follows  the  unseen  influence  of 
what  he  admires  and  loves  and  believes  in. 

15.  Her  only  noteworthy  achievement  was  that  she  had  named 
her  twin  sons  Marquis  de  Lafayette  Randall  and  Lorenzo  de  Medici 
Randall. 

16.  I  wonder  who  could  describe  those  wonderful  coral  gardens  on 
which  we  gazed  through  twenty  fathoms  of  crystal  water. 

LXXIX.     REVIEW    OF    CLAUSES 

313.  We  have  learned  that  clauses  may  be  independent  or 
dependent ;  that  dependent  clauses  may  be  used  like  nouns, 
adjectives,  or  adverbs ;  that  adjective  clauses  may  be  restric- 
tive or  unrestrictive ;  that  adverbial  clauses  may  denote  vari- 
ous circumstances,  such  as  time,  place,  manner,  etc.;  that 
dependent  clauses  are  introduced  by  some  word  that  in- 
dicates their  dependence. 

Exercise  1.  —  Study  again  Lessons  XVIII,  XX,  LXVT- 
LXXVIII,  and  then  make  an  outline  of  the  subject,  Clauses, 
having  for  your  main  topics,  — 

(1)  Classification. 

(2)  Introductory  word. 

(3)  Use. 

Make  a  good  original  sentence  to  illustrate  each  point. 

Exercise  2.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  Though  Diana  looked  very  old,  she  looked  exactly  the  same 
during  all  the  years  in  which  I  knew  her;  and  Aunt  Maria,  who 
had  known  her  all  her  life,  said  that  she  had  never  looked  any 
younger. 

2.  The  only  difference  between  the  sisters  was  that  while  Mi- 
randa only  wondered  how  they  could  endure  Rebecca,  Jane  had 
flashes  of  inspiration  in  which  she  wondered  how  Rebecca  would 
endure  them. 

3.  Whether  the  pigeons  dropped  exhausted  on  some  ship  and 
were  helped  across  the  ocean,  or  whether  some  storm  at  sea  swept 
them  away  forever,  no  one  ever  knew. 


REVIEW  OF  PRONOUNS  207 

4.  Did  mother  know  who  brought  the  scarlet-runner  seeds 
from  Whit  tier's  birthplace  ? 

5.  I  never  quite  understood  why  a  girl  ^ho  climbed  trees,  clung 
to  the  tail  end  of  carts,  and  otherwise  deported  herself  as  a  well- 
conditioned  girl  should  not,  was  called  a  tomboy. 

6.  The  boy  remembers  how  his  mother's  anxiety  was  divided 
between  the  set  of  his  turn-over  collar,  the  parting  of  his  hair,  and 
his  memory  of  the  Sunday-school  verses. 

7.  Most  people  think  that  the  best  thing  they  can  give  to  a 
caged  bird  is  his  liberty. 

8.  The  horrible  thought  came  coldly  over  me  that  the  tiger  was 
keeping  me  company  until  a  good  chance  offered  for  a  spring. 

9.  Possibly  the  reason  why  monkeys  have  been  so  little  on  the 
stage  is  that  their  appearance  there  would  emphasize  too  strongly 
the  striking  similarity  between  man  and  monkey. 

10.  An  elephant  who  will  not  work  and  is  not  tied  up  is  about  as 
manageable  as  an  eighty-one  ton  gun  in  a  heavy  seaway. 

11.  Nothing  cleverer  than  was  Moufflon  had  ever  walked  upon 
four  legs. 

12.  The  truth  is  that  boys  have  always  been  so  plenty  that  they 
are  not  half  appreciated. 

13.  The  professor  was  so  pleased  with  his  witticism  that  I  was 
let  off  without  even  a  scolding. 

14.  Those  Indian  nations  who  still  preserve  their  ancient  mode 
of  life,  have  dogs  which  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  wolves. 

15.  The  partridge  remembered  the  time  when  the  chickadees 
had  seemed  such  big,  important  creatures. 

Criticize  the  use  of  between  in  sentence  6. 

LXXX.     REVIEW    OF   PRONOUNS 

314.   We  have  learned  that  pronouns  may  be  classified  as 
follows :  — 

(1)  Personal  pronouns. 

(2)  Compound  personal  pronouns. 

(3)  Interrogative  pronouns. 

(4)  Adjective  pronouns. 

(5)  Relative  pronouns. 

(6)  Indefinite  pronouns. 


208  REVIEW  OF  PRONOUNS 

Exercise  1.  —  Study  again  Lessons  V,  XXXIX-XLIIIy 
XLVIII,  LXXVI,  LXXVIII,  and  then  be  prepared  to  ex- 
plain each  class  of  pronoun,  and  to  tell  the  various  uses  of 
each  class.  Illustrate  each  point  with  an  original  sentence 
or  with  one  that  you  yourself  have  found  in  some  book. 

Exercise  2.  —  Parse  all  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.    If  there  is  anything  peculiar  in  the  use  of  any  pro-r 
noun,  comment  upon  it.     (See  pp.  100,  106,  108,  122,  197.) 

1.  What  was  the  Great  Stone  Face  ? 

2.  To  make  a  quarrel  needs,  indeed,  two ;  but  to  make  peace 
needs  only  one. 

3.  When  the  swarm  comes  out,  it  consists  of  both  old  and  youngs 
bees,  and,  indeed,  some  say  that  the  old  queen  leads  them,  and  the 
young  one  takes  her  vacant  throne. 

4.  We  could  easily  surmise  who  the  Halloween  rascals  were, 
but  what  was  the  terrifying  apparatus  they  applied  to  our  window 
panes  we  could  not  imagine. 

5.  All  of  this  is  mine  and  thine. 

6.  Attracted  by  the  smell  either  of  the  newly  killed  waterbuck 
or  of  ourselves,  the  hungry  lions  were  storming  our  position. 

7.  Oh,  give  me  my  lowly  thatched  cottage  again. 

8.  The  interior  of  St.  Paul's  is  just  what  one  would  expect  after 
viewing  the  outside.  A  maze  of  grand  arches  on  every  side  encom- 
passes the  dome,  which  you  gaze  up  at  as  at  the  sky;  and  from 
every  pillar  and  wall  look  down  the  marble  forms  of  the  dead. 

9.  By  the  wholesome  law  of  the  prairie,  he  who  falls  asleep  on 
guard  is  condemned  to  walk  all  day. 

10.  Who  has  sight  so  keen  and  strong 
That  it  can  follow  the  flight  of  song  ? 

11.  The  schoolhouse  was  a  high  brick  building,  and  the  yard 
itself  was  made  of  brick. 

12.  The  Eskimo  dogs  are  of  great  use  to  their  masters  in  discover- 
ing by  the  scent  the  winter  retreats  which  the  bears  make  under 
the  snow. 

13.  The  Taj  Mahal  is  a  Mohammedan  tomb,  the  tomb  of  the 
favorite  wife  of  an  Indian  Mogul.  It  is  her  tomb,  and  also  his  own, 
for  he  lies  beside  her,  and  it  was  built  in  compliance  with  a  request 
of  hers  before  she  died. 


INFINITIVES  209 

14.  I  procured  a  bowl  of  soup  from  the  steward,  but  as  I  was 
not  able  to  eat  it,  I  gave  it  to  an  old  man  whose  hungry  look  and 
wistful  eyes  convinced  me  it  would  not  be  lost  on  him. 

15.  What's  a  fair  or  noble  face 
If  the  mind  ignoble  be  ? 

16.  Keep  fresh  the  grass  on  Wordsworth's  grave, 
O  Rotha,  with  thy  living  wave  ! 

Sing  him  thy  best !  for  few  or  none 
Hears  thy  voice  right,  now  he  is  gone. 

LXXXI.     INFINITIVES 

315.  Look  at  the  following  sentences :  — 

Dare  to  he  true. 

It  is  high  time  to  go. 

The  bishop  seemed  to  have  talked  with  angels. 

You  ought  to  have  been  paying  attention. 

We  have  here  certain  verb  forms,  —  to  be,  to  go,  to  have 
talked,  to  have  been  paying,  —  which  are  very  familiar  to  all 
of  us,  but  which  we  have  not  yet  studied.  They  are  not 
forms  of  the  indicative,  subjunctive,  or  imperative  mode,  nor 
are  they  like  any  of  the  verb  phrases  that  we  have  examined. 
They  all  begin  with  the  word  to,  and  they  contain  two,  three, 
or  four  words,  the  last  of  which  is  the  important  one.  We 
call  these  groups  of  words  infinitives. 

316.  An  intransitive  verb  has  four  infinitives,  two  of  them 
denoting  a  present  action,  hence  called  present  infinitives; 
and  the  other  two  denoting  an  action  already  completed, 
hence  called  perfect  infinitives. 

The  four  infinitives  of  the  intransitive  verb  laugh  are 
these :  — 

Present  Perfect 

to  laugh  to  have  laughed 

to  be  laughing  to  have  been  laughing 

Which  two  of  these  infinitives  belong  to  the  progressive 
conjugation? 

Kimball's  eng.  gram.  — 14 


210  INFINITIVES 

317.   Transitive   verbs   have   six   infinitives.     The   infini- 
tives of  the  transitive  verb  eat  are  these :  — 

Present  Perfect 

Active  to  eat  to  have  eaten 

Active  Progressive  to  be  eating  to  have  been  eating 

to  be  eaten  to  have  been  eaten 


318.  The  infinitives  above  are  called  infinitives  with  fo, 
because  they  begin  with  the  word  to.  This  word  is  not  used 
as  a  preposition,  but  merely  as  a  sort  of  handle,  or  introduc- 
tion, to  the  infinitive. 

319.  Besides  the  infinitive  with  to  there  is  another  form 
called  the  infinitive  in  -ing.  The  infinitives  in  -ing  of  the 
verb  6a^  are  these :  — 


Present 

Perfect 

Active 

eating 

having  eaten 

Active  Progressive 

having  been  eating 

Passive 

being  eaten 

having  been  eaten 

What  are  the  infinitives  in  -ing  of  the  verb  laugh  ?  Which 
two  forms  does  it  lack? 

Find  the  infinitives  in  -ing  in  these  sentences :  — 

He  was  fined  for  losing  his  temper. 

"Being  a  Boy"  is  the  title  of  a  book. 

He  was  vexed  at  having  misspelled  so  many  words. 

320.  All  infinitives  are  forms  of  verbs,  but  they  cannot  be 
predicate  verbs  because  they  do  not  assert.  They  are  spoken 
of  as  verbals. 

321.  A  verbal  is  used  in  a  sentence  like  some  part  of  speech, 
—  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  The  infinitive  is 
most  frequently  used  like  a  noun.  The  infinitive  in  -ing  is 
very  much  like  a  noun  in  another  respect  too,  —  it  names  the 
action  or  state  that  the  predicate  verb  asserts.  If  we  should 
ask  for  the  name  of  any  action  that  we  saw  a  person  perform- 
ing,  the  answer  would  be  an  infinitive  in  -ing;  as,  reaping , 
mowing,  plowing,  driving. 


INFINITIVES  211 

322.  The  infinitive  in  -ing  is  so  much  Uke  a  noun  that  it 
can  be  modified  by  a  possessive  noun  or  pronoun.  We  say, 
"  Your  winning  the  victory  depends  on  your  keeping  cool." 
''  The  farmer's  chagrin  was  due  to  his  hay^s  having  spoiled.'' 
Explain  the  use  of  all  the  possessives  in  these  sentences. 

Note.  —  The  infinitive  in  -ing  is  often  called  a  gerund. 

323.  The  infinitive  may  take  the  same  complements  and 
modifiers  that  any  other  form  of  the  same  verb  might  take. 
The  infinitive,  together  with  all  the  words  associated  with  it, 
makes  an  infinitive  phrase.  The  base  word  of  an  infinitive 
phrase  is  always  an  infinitive.  What  are  the  infinitive  phrases 
in  all  the  illustrative  sentences  in  this  lesson? 

Summary.  —  A  verbal  is  a  verb  form  that  denotes  action 
or  being  without  asserting  it. 

A  verbal  is  used  in  a  sentence  as  a  noun,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb. 

An  infinitive  is  a  verbal  that  is  generally  used  as  a  noun. 

There  are  two  classes  of  infinitives,  —  the  infinitive  with 
tOj  and  the  infinitive  in  -ing. 

The  infinitive  has  two  tenses,  —  present  and  perfect. 

The  infinitive  may  be  active  or  passive  or  progressive. 

An  infinitive  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  consisting  of  an  in- 
'  finitive  together  with  its  complement  and  modifiers. 

Exercise  1.  —  Write  all  the  infinitives  of  the  verbs  be,  bring, 
comej  findj  freeze,  go,  leave,  seem,  taste,  turn. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  infinitive  phrases  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.     Tell  the  voice  and  tense  of  each  infinitive. 

Model  — It  is  hard  to  t^ach  an  old  dog  new  tricks.  To 
teach  an  old  dog  new  tricks  is  an  infinitive  phrase.  To  teach 
is  the  present  active  infinitive  of  the  transitive  verb  teach. 

1.  Am  I  to  give  a  reason  for  all  I  choose  to  do  ? 

2.  The  cherry  pie  seemed  to  have  been  left  in  the  refrigerator 
for  that  hungry  young  pair. 


212       INFINITIVES  AS  SUBJECTS  OR  COMPLEMENTS 

3.  Driving  between  these  long  lines  of  dainty-flowering  and 
sweet-smelling  rows  of  hedges  is  very  delightful. 

4.  All  the  lines  of  pain  smoothed  out  of  her  brow,  and  she 
seemed  to  be  peacefully  sleeping. 

5.  The  lights  had  been  extinguished,  the  buoys  removed,  and 
the  whole  coast  seemed  to  have  gone  back  hundreds  of  years. 

6.  Your  having  given  me  the  opera  glasses  is  no  reason  that 
you  have  a  right  to  borrow  them  continually. 

7.  Any  child  should  know  that  a  hot  stove  is  a  thing  to  be 
'  avoided,  but  I  did  not  seem  to  realize  the  fact. 

8.  The  boy  would  like  to  have  thrown  a  stone  at  the  wagon. 

9.  Did  you  mind  being  reproved  by  your  mother  for  sitting  up 
so  late  ? 

10.  It  was  already  past  the  appointed  hour  for  Mr.  Cobb  and  his 
coach  to  be  lumbering  down  the  street. 

11.  From  her  having  been  staying  at  the  Antlers  the  entire  sea- 
son, I  should  judge  her  to  be  wealthy. 

12.  Scrooge  was  not  a  man  to  be  frightened  by  echoes. 

13.  There's  no  use  in  making  two  bites  of  a  cherry. 

14.  The  fact  of  the  letter's  having  been  opened  was  evident,  but 
it  could  not  be  proved  against  the  mail  carrier. 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  your,  sentence  6,  her  11, 
letter^s  14. 

LXXXII.     INFINITIVES   AS    SUBJECTS    OR    COM- 
PLEMENTS 

324.  If  we  wish  to  make  an  assertion  about  a  person,  a 
place,  or  an  object,  we  use  a  noun  for  the  base  word  of  our 
jsubject ;  but  if  we  wish  to  make  an  assertion  about  an  action, 
we  use  an  infinitive  or  an  infinitive  phrase  for  subject;  as, 
'^  Just  to  breathe  the  air  and  feel  one's  self  alive  was  enough," 
''  Going  after  the  cows  was  a  serious  thing  in  my  day." 

325.  We  have  seen  that  a  noun  clause  used  as  subject  may 
be  thrown  to  the  end  of  the  sentence  by  means  of  the  an- 
ticipative  subject  it;  as,  ''It  is  a  good  thing  that  somebody 
likes  to  cookJ^     In  the  same  way  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as 


INFINITIVES  AS  SUBJECTS  OR  COMPLEMENTS        213 

subject  may  come  after  the  predicate ;  as,  '^  It  pleased  the 
jackal  to  see  Mother  and  Father  Wolf  look  uncomfortable/' 
Recast  this  sentence,  omitting  it, 

326.  The  infinitive  phrase  is  often  used  as  the  object  of  a 
verb.  Not  all  transitive  verbs,  however,  can  be  completed 
by  inj&nitives  —  only  those  which  can  take  for  an  object  the 
name  of  an  action  or  a  condition;  as,  '^The  cloud  began  to 
sink  softly  down  to  the  earth,''  ^^  After  a  struggle  Bess  gave 
up  using  two  lumps  of  sugar  in  her  coffee.'' 

Why  cannot  the  verbs  break,  brings  buy,  cut,  eat,  and  plow 
take  infinitives  for  objects? 

327.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  a  subjective  complement  of 
an  intransitive  verb  in  two  ways  that  differ  slightly;  as,  '^  The 
hunter's  first  impulse  was  to  laugh  at  his  own  folly,"  ''No 
trees  of  any  magnitude  were  to  be  seen." 

In  the  first  sentence  the  infinitive  phrase,  to  laugh  at  his 
own  folly,  completes  the  verb  was  and  explains  just  what  the 
impulse  was,  hence  it  denotes  identity  with  the  subject.  Its 
use  is  precisely  like  that  of  the  word  dime  in  the  sentence, 
"  My  'lucky  penny'  is  a  silver  dime,''  hence  we  say  that  it 
is  used  Uke  a  noun. 

In  the  second  sentence  it  is  clear  that  the  infinitive  to  be 
seen  completes  the  verb  were  and  tells  something  about  the 
subject,  hence  it  must  be  a  subjective  complement.  But 
instead  of  being  used  like  a  noun  to  denote  identity  with  the 
subject,  it  is  equivalent  to  the  adjective  visible,  hence  may 
be  said  to  be  used  Uke  an  adjective. 

Summary.  —  The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  the  subject  of 
a  verb,  the  object  of  a  verb,  or  a  subjective  complement. 

By  means  of  the  anticipative  subject  it,  the  real  subject, 
an  infinitive  phrase,  may  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

As  subjective  complement  the  infinitive  phrase  may  have 
the  use  of  a  noun  or  of  an  adjective. 


214        INFINITIVES  AS  SUBJECTS  OR  COMPLEMENTS 

Exercise.  —  Tell  the  grammatical  use  of  all  infinitive 
phrases  in  these  sentences,  and  classify  all  infinitives:  — 

1.  Mowgli  said  that  he  never  wished  to  see,  or  hear,  or  smell 
man  again. 

2.  That  which  most  resembles  living  one's  life  over  again  is 
recalling  all  the  circumstances  of  it  and  recording  them  in  writing. 

3.  To  fit  out  a  fleet,  and  to  levy  and  equip  an  army,  and  to 
continue  the  forces  thus  raised  in  action  during  a  long  and  uncertain 
campaign  would  cost  a  large  sum  of  money. 

4.  When  the  days  begin  to  lengthen, 
Then  the  cold  begins  to  strengthen. 

5.  It  is  delightful  to  look  upon  the  charming  country  which 
springs  up  under  a  watering-pot  sky. 

6.  One  of  the  best  things  in  farm  life  is  gathering  the  chestnuts, 
hickory  nuts,  butternuts,  and  beechnuts. 

7.  Speaking  of  Latin  reminds  me  that  I  once  taught  my  cows 
Latin. 

8.  The  quaint,  picturesque  old  town  seems  to  bristle  with  forts. 

9.  When  I  wanted  to  hit  a  mark,  my  usual  way  was  to  aim  at 
something  else. 

10.  The  one  idea  in  Mowgli' s  head  was  to  get  Messua  and  her 
husband  out  of  the  trap. 

11.  This  boy  was  so  forward  in  domestic  arts  that  he  undertook 
sewing  on  the  machine  when  he  was  only  five  years  old. 

12.  It  is  bad  manners  to  find  fault  with  your  food  at  the  table. 

13.  To  climb  a  tree  and  shake  it,  to  club  it,  to  strip  it  of  its 
fruit,  and  pass  to  the  next,  is  the  sport  of  a  brief  time. 

14.  Oiie  of  Jakie's  amusements  was  dancing  across  the  back  of 
a  tall  chair,  taking  funny  little  steps,  coming  down  hard,  jouncing 
his  body,  and  whistling  as  loud  as  he  could . 

15.  The  Englishman  learned  to  fight  from  behind  a  tree,  to  follow 
a  trail,  and  to  cover  his  body  with  hemlock  boughs  for  disguise. 

16.  It  exactly  suits  the  temperament  of  a  real  boy  to  be  very 
busy  about  nothing. 

17.  Trotting  on  city  pavements  is  very  hard  on  the  dray  horses. 

18.  The  reward  of  a  good  sentence  is  to  have  written  it. 

Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  that  and  which  in  sen- 
tence 2,  sum  3,  then  4,  years  11.  What  is  the  object  oifrom 
in  sentence  15?     Think  of  similar  expressions. 


INFINITIVES  AS  MODIFIERS  OF  NOUNS       215 


LXXXIII.     INFINITIVES   AS    MODIFIERS    OF    NOUNS 

328.  The  infinitive  phrase  is  often  a  modifier  of  a  noun, 
and  may  be  used  either  Uke  an  adjective  or  Hke  an  appositive. 

In  the  sentence,  '^  Ulf  still  had  a  name  to  win,'^  what  noun 
does  the  infinitive  modify?     How  do  you  know? 

In  the  sentence,  '^  The  mayor  gave  the  order  to  close  the 
skating  rink,''  the  infinitive  phrase  to  close  the  skating  rink 
modifies  the  noun  order  by  telling  exactly  what  the  order  was; 
hence  we  must  say  that  it  is  in  apposition  with  order. 

329.  The  infinitive  in  -ing  is  not  used  as  an  adjective  modi- 
fier of  a  noun  except  in  some  compound  words  like  these  : 
rolUng-pinj  laughingstock,  meetinghouse,  drawing-room. 

330.  Often  the  infinitive  in  -ing  is  used  in  apposition,  as  in 
the  sentence,  ^^  Her  household  tasks,  keeping  the  bedrooms 
tidy  and  caring  for  the  canary  birds,  left  her  little  time  for 
music  practice." 

Summary.  —  The  infinitive  phrase  may  modify  a  noun 
either  as  an  adjective  or  as  an  appositive. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  infinitive  phrases,  and  explain 
the  use  of  each.  Classify  also  each  infinitive,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding exercise. 

1.  Is  this  a  time  to  be  cloudy  and  sad 
When  our  Mother  Nature  laughs  around  ? 

2.  As  the  Cloud  became  larger,  this  wish  to  do  something  for 
the  people  of  earth  was  ever  greater  in  her  heart. 

3.  This  is  your  last  chance  to  see  Chicago,  Tom. 

4.  Day  after  day  mother  sat  at  the  east  window  engaged  in  her 
favorite  pastime  —  making  something  dainty  and  beautiful  with 
her  needle. 

5.  Almost  all  persons  who  travel  in  Switzerland  have  a  great 
desire  to  go  to  the  top  of  at  least  one  of  the  towering  peaks  they  see 
about  them. 


216     INFINITIVES,   PARTS  OF  "DOUBLE  OBJECTS" 

6.  Now  bring  us  something  to  eat.     I  have  not  patience  to 
wait,  for  I  am  ravenously  hungry. 

7.  The  first  tracks  to  meet  our  eyes  were  the  delicate  footprints 
of  the  red  squirrel. 

8.  The  Colonel's  only  form  of  exercise,  riding  horseback  every 
evening,  made  him  a  familiar  figure  throughout  the  city. 

9.  Nothing  pleased  the  dog  more  than  an  order  to  go  and  fetch 
the  cow. 

10.  To  the  deer  a  mystery  means  something  to  be  solved. 

11.  A  strange  longing  to  follow  the  swan  took  possession  of 
each  of  the  young  birds. 

12.  A  queer  freak  of  my  chewink  was  her  determination  to  get  her 
feet  into  her  food. 

13.  Never  lose  an  opportunity  to  see  anything  beautiful. 

14.  This  father  was  the  comrade  of  his  son,  made  so  by  the 
memory  of  his  own  boyhood  sports,  —  playing  baseball  on  the 
common,  swimming  in  the  lake  off  Miller's  Point,  skating  out  to 
Garlic  Island,  and  gathering  hickory  nuts  and  hazelnuts  in  the 
autumn  woods. 

Classify  the  dependent  clauses  in  sentences,  1,  2,  5,  9. 
Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  figure,  sentence  8. 

LXXXIV.     INFINITIVES   AS   PARTS    OF   ''DOUBLE 
OBJECTS/'     AS    MODIFIERS    OF   VERBS 

331.  In  the  sentence,  ''  I  want  my  friends  to  believe  in 
me,"  we  find  the  verb  to  be  want.  If  we  ask  the  question 
want  what?  the  answer  is  the  group  of  words  my  friends  to 
believe  in  me ;  hence  we  are  sure  that  this  group  of  words  is 
the  object. 

But  this  object  is. different  from  any  group  of  words  that 
we  have  studied  hitherto.  It  does  not  consist  of  a  base  word 
and  modifiers,  but  instead  it  consists  of  two  parts  that  are 
equally  important.  These  are  my  friends  and  the  infinitive 
phrase  to  believe  in  me.  The  phrase  is  not  a  modifier  of 
friends,  but  has  the  logical  relation  of  predicate  to  friends, 
as  may  be  proved  by  changing  the  whole  group  of  words  to 
a  noun  clause,  that  my  friends  should  believe  in  me. 


INFINITIVES,    PARTS  OF   ''DOUBLE  OBJECTS''   217 

When  the  object  of  a  verb  consists  of  two  parts,  a  noun 
element  and  an  infinitive,  having  to  each  other  the  logical  re- 
lation of  subject  and  predicate,  we  call  the  whole  group  a 
double  object. 

332.  Although  the  relation  between  the  two  parts  of  a 
double  object  is  logically  that  of  subject  and  predicate,  still 
this  relation  is  not  grammatically  expressed.  A  double  object 
does  not  make  sense  standing  alone,  and  we  cannot  speak  of 
the  infinitive  in  a  double  object  as  a  predicate,  for  an  infinitive 
cannot  assert.  It  is  customarj^,  however,  to  speak  of  the 
noun  element  in  a  double  object  as  the  subject  of  the  infin- 
itive. The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  always  in  the  objective 
case,  as  may  be  plainly  seen  by  substituting  a  pronoun  for 
the  noun  used  as  subject.  In  the  sentence  quoted,  the  pro- 
noun that  might  take  the  place  of  my  friends  is  the  objective 
pronoun  them. 

333.  An  infinitive  in  -ing  is  often  used  as  part  of  a  double 
object;  as,  "I  hear  their  voices  ringing  in  merry  childish 
glee,''    '^  I  can  see  his  gallant  figure  coming  down  the  road.'* 

334.  Notice  that  a  double  object  is  not  two  objects  of 
equal  rank,  as  in  the  sentence,  ''  I  want  peace  and  quiet '/^ 
but  is  one  object  consisting  of  two  equal  parts  so  closely 
related,  that  neither  of  these  parts  could  be  the  object  if  used 
without  the  other. 

335.  When  the  infinitive  with  to  is  used  after  the  verbs 
hear  and  see,  as  well  as  after  feel,  let,  make,  the  to  of  the  in- 
finitive is  omitted;  as,  ''Did  you  hear  me  {to)  rap  at  your 
door  ?  "  "  Let  us  (to)  be  true  to  one  another,"  "  The  mos- 
quitoes made  us  (to)  go  indoors." 

Find  and  explain  the  double  objects  in  each  of  these  three 
sentences. 

336.  When  a  sentence  containing  a  double  object  is  changed 
to  the  passive  voice,  the  noun  element  of  the  double  object 


218        INFINITIVES  AS  MODIFIERS  OF  VERBS 

becomes  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb,  and  the  infinitive 
phrase  becomes  the  subjective  complement  of  the  verb. 
Change  this  sentence  to  the  passive  voice  and  explain  the 
change,  '^  We  expected  John  to  decorate  the  banquet  room." 

337.  We  have  seen  that  the  infinitive  may  be  used  as  the 
complement  of  a  verb  in  several  ways :  it  may  be  the  direct 
object  of  a  verb,  or  the  subjective  complement,  or  part  of  a 
double  object.  There  is  another  very  common  relation  of 
the  infinitive  to  a  verb,  as  shown  in  the  sentence,  "  Some 
persons  live  to  eat."  The  infinitive  to  eat  is  in  the  predi- 
cate, but  it  is  not  an  object  of  the  verb  live,  neither  is  it  a 
subjective  complement.  How  do  we  know  this?  As  the  in- 
finitive answers  the  question  for  what  purpose  f  we  conclude 
that  it  is  a  modifier  of  the  verb  live.  Furthermore,  it  could 
be  expanded  into  the  adverbial  clause  of  pm-pose,  that  they 
may  eat. 

The  infinitive  denoting  purpose  is  very  common,  as  seen 
in  the  familiar  sentences:  '^  We  go  to  school  to  learn/'  "We 
stood  up  to  see,"   "  I  sat  down  to  rest." 

Summary.  —  An  infinitive  phrase  and  a  noun,  having  the 
logical  relation  of  subject  and  predicate,  may  form  the  double 
object  of  some  transitive  verbs. 

An  infinitive  phrase  denoting  the  purpose  of  an  action  may 
be  used  to  modify  a  verb. 

Exercise  1. — Write  sentences  containing  double  objects  of 
the  verbs  cause,  desire,  expect,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  order,  see,  wish. 

Explain  why  there  are  no  double  objects  in  these 
sentences:  — 

1.  They  could  get  no  water  to  drink. 

2.  He  has  an  ax  to  grind. 

3.  We  found  plenty  to  eat. 

4.  She  bought  a  rose  to  wear. 

5.  I  made  a  cake  to  sell. 


INFINITIVES  AS  MODIFIERS  OF  VERBS        219 

Exercise  2.  —  Explain  the  use  of  all  infinitive  phrases  in 
these  sentences.     Classify  the  infinitives. 

1.  The  boy  made  up  his  mind  that  he  would  take  two  of  the 
whelps  home  with  him  to  be  brought  up  in  the  ways  of  civilization. 

2.  In  happy  homes  he  saw  the  hght 

Of  household  fires  gleam  warm  and  bright. 

3.  More  rarely  a  fox  or  a  hyena  quickened  his  gaUop  to  study 
the  intruder  at  a  safe  distance. 

4.  When  the  car  stopped  and  I  looked  up  at  the  window  with 
the  pink  geranium,  I  saw  mother  waiting  to  welcome  me. 

5.  The  whole  family  went  to  the  station  to  see  us  off. 

6.  I  do  not  quite  know  what  caused  me  to  lift  my  head  from  the 
friendly  shelter  of  the  blanket. 

7.  He  felt  his  swift  craft  quiver  with  life  beneath  him  in  re- 
sponse to  the  rhythmic  stroke  of  the  oarsmen. 

8.  Jupiter  bustled  about  to  prepare  some  marsh  hens  for 
supper. 

9.  To  keep  the  artillery  dry,  we  stuffed  wads  of  loose  hemp  into 
the  muzzles,  and  fitted  wooden  pegs  to  the  touch  holes. 

10.  Down  the  elm-bordered  road  we  two  walked  toward  the  sun- 
set, and  watched  the  mists  rising  ghostlike  from  the  fields. 

11.  Mowgli  heard  the  sound  rumble,  and  rise,  and  fall,  and  die 
off  in  a  creepy  sort  of  whine  behind  him. 

12.  At  recess  the  next  noon  the  Centipedes  met  in  a  corner  of 
the  schoolyard  to  talk  over  the  proposed  lark. 

13.  Our  Heavenly  Father  himself  has  planted  that  pea,  and  made 
it  grow  and  blossom  to  bring  joy  to  you  and  hope  to  me,  my  blessed 
child. 

14.  Nearly  all  the  finest  diamonds  in  the  world  are  brought  to 
Amsterdam  to  be  cut  into  shape. 

15.  It  was  Long  Tom  who  taught  Harvey  to  shoot  at  a  mark 
with  a  revolver. 

16.  He's  gone  to  fight  the  French  for  King  George  upon  his 
throne. 

17.  We  heard  the  meadow  larks  singing  their  wistful  songs,  but 
always  instead  of  the  black  hearts  upon  their  yellow  breasts  they 
showed  us  just  the  two  white  feathers  in  their  tails. 

Change  sentences  2,  4,  10,  11,  13,  17  to  the  passive  voice, 
and  explain  the  change  in  the  use  of  the  infinitive. 


220  OTHER  USES  OF  INFINITIVES 

LXXXV.     OTHER   USES    OF   INFINITIVES 

338.  The  most  frequent  use  of  the  infinitive  in  -ing  is  as 
the  object  of  a  preposition ;  as,  ^^  I  am  tired  of  doing  nothing/' 
'^He  earned  a  living  by  sharpening  scissors." 

339.  The  infinitive  in  -ing,  Hke  the  noun,  may  be  the  object 
of  any  preposition,  but  the  infinitive  with  to  is  used  as  the 
object  of  very  few  prepositions,  only  about ,  except ^  but,  and 
save,  the  last  two  meaning  except. 

In  the  sentence,  "  He  ate  nothing  but  bananas,"  the  object 
of  the  preposition  hut  must  be  a  noun  because  it  must  be  the 
name  of  a  food.  But  in  the  sentence,  *'  He  did  nothing  but 
play  tennis,"  the  object  of  but  must  be  an  infinitive  because 
it  must  be  the  name  of  an  action. 

Note.  — We  often  hear  the  expression  "I  was  about  to  say."  In 
this  familiar  idiom  the  prepositional  phrase  about  to  say  is  used  as 
the  subjective  complement  of  the  verb  was.  How  do  we  know  this  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  infinitive  to  say? 

340.  In  the  sentence,  *'  The  gentleman  drew  out  the  chair 
for  the  lady  to  sit  down,"  if  we  ask  the  question  for  what? 
we  get  the  answer  the  lady  to  sit  down,  hence  the  group  of 
words  the  lady  to  sit  down  must  be  the  object  of  the  preposition 
for.  But  this  group  of  words  consists  of  two  parts,  the  lady 
and  the  infinitive  phrase  to  sit  down,  which  have  the  logical 
relation  of  subject  and  predicate,  hence  we  conclude  that 
the  preposition  for  may  take  a  double  object. 

341.  The  sentences,  "  Sheep  are  apt,"  "  I  am  sorry," 
"  The  traveler  was  glad,"  are  all  incomplete.  We  wish  to 
know  in  what  respect  sheep  are  apt,  what  I  am  sorry  about, 
what  the  traveler  was  glad  of.  In  other  words,  the  adjectives 
aptj  sorry,  and  glad  need  a  modifier  to  make  the  sentence  com- 
plete in  meaning.  This  modifier  may  be  an  infinitive,  '^  Sheep 
are  apt  to  get  lost,^'     '^I  am  sorry  to  leave  Warwick/'    ''  The 


OTHER  USES  OF  INFINITIVES  221 

traveler  was  glad  to  see  his  home  again.^^    We  learn  from  these 
sentences  that  an  infinitive  phrase  may  modify  an  adjective. 

Exercise.  —  Complete  the  following  sentences  by  infinitive 
phrases.     What  do  your  phrases  modify  ?     How  do  you  know  ? 

1.  This  child  is  too  young  — 

2.  A  man  of  twenty-five  is  old  enough  — 

3.  The  water  was  so  deep  as  — 

4.  The  general  was  anxious  — 

5.  Some  lessons  are  not  easy  — 

342.  The  infinitive  maybe  used  independently;  as,  ^^To 
be  frank  J  I  do  not  like  it.''  "To  make  a  long  story  short,  we 
were  utterly  defeated.'' 

343.  A  common  error  is  the  use  of  the  perfect  infinitive  for 
the  present.  It  is  proper  to  say,  ^'I  ought  to  have  gone," 
when  we  mean  that  the  time  of  the  going  was  in  the  past; 
as,  '/ 1  ought  to  have  gone  then,  or  yesterday,  or  a  year  ago." 
But  when  we  mean  that  the  going  is  at  the  present  time  or 
is  to  be  in  the  future,  then  we  should  use  the  present  infini- 
tive, and  say,  '^  I  ought  to  go." 

What  is  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  following 
pairs  of  sentences  ? 

1.  I  am  sorry  to  offend  you. 

I  am  sorry  to  have  offended  you. 

2.  I  am  glad  to  see  you. 

I  am  glad  to  have  seen  you. 

3.  The  train  is  reported  to  be  late. 

The  train  is  reported  to  have  been  late. 

4.  The  man  is  said  to  be  a  candidate. 

The  man  is  said  to  have  been  a  candidate. 

It  is  evident  from  the  four  pairs  of  sentences  above  that 
some  verbs  in  the  present  tense  may  be  followed  by  either  a 
present  or  a  perfect  infinitive.  This  is  likewise  true  of  some 
verbs  in  the  past  tense.  We  say,  ''He  seemed  to  be  sleeping," 
meaning  that  he  was  sleeping  at  the  time  we  noted  his  ap- 


222  OTHER  USES  OF  INFINITIVES 

pearance.    We  also  say,  ''  He  seemed  to  have  been  sleeping/' 
meaning  that  he  had  slept  before  we  noted  his  appearance. 

What  is  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  following  pairs 
of  sentences:  — 

1.  Washington  was  never  known  to  fight  a  duel. 
Hamilton  was  known  to  have  fought  a  duel. 

2.  The  ship  was  reported  to  be  wrecked. 

The  ship  was  reported  to  have  been  wrecked. 

3.  The  child  appeared  to  lead  the  old  man. 
The  child  appeared  to  have  led  the  old  man. 

Since  the  verbs  desire,  expect,  hope,  want,  and  msh  refer  to 
something  in  the  present  or  the  future,  but  never  in  the  past, 
they  cannot  be  followed  by  a  perfect  infinitive.  It  is  absurd 
to  say,  ''I  hoped  to  have  seen  you,''  ''I  expected  to  have 
gone/'    "  I  wished  to  have  stayed."     We  should  say  :  — 

I  desire  to  go.    I  desired  to  go. 

I  expect  to  be  there.    I  expected  to  be  there. 

I  hope  to  pass.    I  hoped  to  pass. 

I  want  to  know.    I  wanted  to  know. 

I  wish  to  speak.    I  wished  to  speak. 

Summary.  —  The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  the  ob- 
ject of  a  preposition.  The  preposition /or  may  take  a  double 
object. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  modify  an  adjective. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  independently. 

Exercise.  —  Explain  the  use  of  each  infinitive  phrase. 
Classify  each  infinitive. 

1.  The  cat  was  just  about  to  spring  upon  the  window  sill  where 
the  bird  cage  sat,  when  Paul  shouted  out  a  warning. 

2.  I  am  perfectly  willing  to  dine  in  the  kitchen  beside  this  cool 
north  window. 

3.  The  gay  youths  spent  their  time  in  walking,  hunting,  fish- 
ing, feasting,  and  dancing. 


OTHER  USES  OF  INFINITIVES  223 

4.  It  was  so  cold  at  Petoskey  in  July  that  the  hotel  proprietor 
furnished  a  large  lamp  for  us  to  heat  our  room  by. 

5.  The  cherries  grew  too  high  to  be  picked  except  by  the  robins. 

6.  My  lot  was  indeed  a  hard  one ;  I  was  too  old  to  play  out  of 
doors  with  my  brothers,  and  too  young  to  go  to  parties  with  my 
sisters. 

7.  After  supper,  the  boy  who  has  done  nothing  all  day  but  turn 
grindstone,  and  spread  hay,  and  run  his  little  legs  off  at  everybody's 
beck  and  call,  is  sent  on  some  errand  or  some  household  chore  lest 
time  may  hang  heavy  on  his  hands. 

8.  Bark  is  only  good  to  sharpen  claws. 

9.  John  was  hungry  enough  to  have  eaten  the  New  England 
Primer. 

10.  Franklin  was  employed  in  cutting  wicks  for  the  candles, 
filling  the  molds  for  cast  candles,  attending  the  shop,  going  of 
errands,  etc. 

11.  To  tell  the  truth,  I  prefer  to  stay  at  home. 

12.  The  only  way  to  make  the  world  better  is  for  each  man  to  do 
his  best. 

13.  A  dog  is  good  to  bite  peddlers  and  small  children,  and  to 
run  out  and  yelp  at  wagons  that  pass  by,  and  to  howl  all  night  when 
the  moon  shines. 

14.  To  sum  up,  the  infinitive  is  used  chiefly  as  a  noun,  but  also  as 
an  adjective  and  an  adverb. 

15.  The  teacher's  eyes  glanced  half  a  dozen  different  ways  at 
once,  —  a  habit  probably  acquired  from  watching  the  boys. 

16.  None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 
Nor  named  thee  but  to  praise. 

17.  To  see  the  sparks  rush  like  swarms  of  red  bees  skyward 
through  the  smoke  is  an  experience  long  to  be  remembered. 

18.  To  make  way  for  hemp  the  magnificent  forests  of  Kentucky 
were  felled. 

19.  The  crow  and  the  blackbird  seem  to  love  these  plants. 

20.  It  takes  a  hundred  days  to  lift  out  of  the  tiny  seed  these 
powerful  hollow  stalks. 

21.  The  seeds  fall  to  the  ground,  there  to  be  folded  in  against 
the  time  when  they  shall  rise  again. 

Classify  the  dependent  clauses  in  sentence  1.  What  is 
the  object  of  except  in  sentence  5? 


224  SUMMARY  OF  INFINITIVES 

LXXXVI.     SUMMARY  OF  INFINITIVES 

344.       I.  Definition.  —  An  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun. 
II.  Forms. 

1.  The  infinitive  with  to, 
(a)  Intransitive  verbs. 

Present,  to  go,  to  be  going. 

Perfect,  to  have  gone,  to  have  been  going. 

.    (6)  Transitive  verbs. 

Present,  to  see,  to  be  seeing,  to  be  seen. 
^  Perfect,  to  have  seen,  to  have  been  seeing, 

to  have  been  seen. 

2.  The  infinitive  in  -ing. 
(a)  Intransitive  verbs. 

Present,  going. 

Perfect,  having  gone,  having  been  going. 

(6)  Transitive  verbs. 

Present,  seeing,  being  seen. 
Perfect,  having  seen,  having  been  seeing, 
having  been  seen. 

.  III.  Uses. 

1.  As  a  noun. 

(a)  Subject  of  a  verb. 
To  err  is  human. 
Hunting  is  a  sport. 

(6)  Object  of  a  verb. 

He  expects  to  win. 
They  stopped  working, 

(c)  Subjective  complement. 

My  desire  is  to  own  a  boat. 
His  task  is  feeding  the  sheep. 

(d)  Appositive. 

His  idea,  to  use  coal  ashes,  was  carried  out. 
His  work,  running  a  machine,  is  monot- 
onous. 


ANALYSIS   OF  SENTENCES  225 

{e)   Object  of  a  preposition. 

The  patient  did  nothing  but  eat  and  sleep. 
The  child  was  praised  for  telling  the  truths 

2.  As  an  adjective. 

(a)  Modifying  a  noun. 

I  have  a  garden  to  make. 

(6)  Completing  a  verb. 

These  boats  are  not  to  let. 

3.  As  an  adverb. 

(a)  Modifying  a  verb, 

I  went  back  to  get  some  matches^ 
(6)  Modifying  an  adjective. 

We  are  sure  to  succeed. 

4.  As  part  of  a  double  object. 
(a)  Of  a  verb. 

I  made  her  tell  me. 

(6)  Of  a  preposition. 

I  made  room  for  her  to  sit  with  me. 

5.  Independent  use. 

To  speak  plainly,  I  don*t  believe  it. 

LXXXVII.     ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES    CONTAINING 
INFINITIVE    PHRASES 

345.  The  infinitive  phrase  is  analyzed  very  much  like  a 
predicate.  First,  the  infinitive  should  be  given  as  the  base 
word;  then  its  complement  and   modifiers  should  be  given. 

Model.  —  By  the  law  of  the  jungle  the  tiger  has  no  right  to 
change  his  quarters  without  fair  warning. 

This  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence. 
Kimball's  eng.  gram.  — 15 


226  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES 

The  subject  is  the  tiger.  The  predicate  is  has  by  the  law 
of  the  jungle  no  right  to  change  his  quarters  without  fair 
warning. 

The  predicate  verb  is  has;  it  is  completed  by  the  direct 
object  no  right  to  change  his  quarters  without  fair  warning,  and 
then  modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase  by  the  law  of  the 
jungle. 

The  base  word  of  the  object  is  the  noun  right;  it  is  modi- 
fied by  the  infinitive  phrase  to  change  his  quarters  without  fair 
warning,  and  then  denied  by  the  adjective  no. 

The  base  word  of  the  infinitive  phrase  is  the  infinitive  to 
change;  it  is  completed  by  the  direct  object  his  quarters  and 
modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase  without  fair  warning. 
The  base  word  of  the  object  is  the  noun  quarters,  modified  by 
the  possessive  pronoun  his.  The  base  word  of  the  object  of 
the  preposition  without  is  the  infinitive  warning,  which  is 
modified  by  the  adjective /air. 

The  base  word  of  the  object  of  the  preposition  by  is  the 
noun  law,  which  is  modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase  of 
the  jungle  and  the  article  the. 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  Turning  grindstones  to  grind  scythes  is  one  of  those  heroic 
but  unobtrusive  occupations  for  which  one  gets  no  credit. 

2.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and 
some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. 

3.  When  Kotick  felt  his  skin  tingle  all  over,  his  mother  told  him 
he  was  learning  the  feel  of  the  water. 

4.  Mother  made  and  embroidered  a  white  linen  pocket  for  me 
to  wear  at  my  belt, 

5.  The  neighbors  and  friends  did  not  wait  for  an  invitation  to  go  to 
the  house  of  the  young  wife,  so  impatient  were  they  to  see  her  treasures. 

6.  The  Boy  had  no  desire  to  investigate  further,  with  the  risk 
of  finding  the  lynx  at  home. 

7.  It  seems  hard  any  day  to  think  what  to  have  for  dinner. 

8.  The  next  thing  was  to  cord  up  the  trunk,  and  Mr.  Peterkin 
tried  to  move  it. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES  227 

9.    I  have  seen  wild  bees  and  butterflies  feeding  at  a  height  of 
13,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

10.  If  you  wear  an  automobile  veil  to  pick  cherries  in,  I  must  get 
an  automobile  to  take  you  to  the  cherry  trees. 

11.  No  person  but  yourself  is  permitted  to  lift  this  stone  or  enter 
the  cave. 

12.  Very  sweet  were  the  child's  ways  of  loving  her  father,  — 
putting  flowers  on  his  study  table,  learning  to  read  so  that  she  could 
read  his  books,  reaching  up  to  rub  her  cheek  against  his,  praying  for 
him,  and  letting  him  put  her  to  bed. 

13.  The  Oldest  Inhabitant  refused  to  go  to  bed  on  any  terms, 
but  persisted  in  sitting  up  in  a  rocking-chair  until  daybreak. 

14.  The  Eskimo  never  knows  when  his  own  time  may  come  to  beg. 

15.  Fate  tried  to  conceal  him  by  naming  him  Smith. 

16.  The  only  department  of  life  in  which  Mr.  RandaU  failed  to 
shine  was  the  making  of  sufficient  money  to  live  upon. 

17.  He  saw  an  eagle  swoop  across  the  gigantic  hollow,  but  the 
great  bird  dwindled  to  a  dot  ere  it  was  halfway  over. 

18.  After  she  began  wearing  the  bracelet,  she  was  unwilling  to  go 
without  it  even  for  a  day. 

19.  Hewing  wood  and  sawing  plank  leave  me  no  time  to  take  part 
in  disputes. 

20.  The  one  object  of  Polly's  life  was  to  get  out  of  her  cage. 

21.  The  skipper  had  taken  his  little  daughter  to  bear  him  com- 
pany. 

22.  Every  boy  is  anxious  to  be  a  man. 

23.  A  man  has  no  more  right  to  say  a  rude  thing  to  another  than 
to  knock  him  down. 

24.  To  travel  in  Switzerland  it  is  generally  necessary  to  cross  the 
mountains,  to  go  around  the  sides,  or  to  go  through  them. 

25.  Even  the  blind  men's  dogs  appeared  to  know  Scrooge. 

26.  Let  dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite. 

27.  When  a  bear  kills  a  sheep,  he  skins  it  deftly  and  has  the 
politeness  to  leave  the  pelt  in  a  neat  bundle,  just  to  indicate  to  the 
farmer  that  he  has  been  robbed  by  a  gentleman. 

28.  The  first  tracks  to  meet  their  eyes  were  the  delicate  foot- 
prints of  the  red  squirrel. 

29.  It  is  not  good  to  make  a  jest  of  thy  teacher. 

30.  Angels  seemed  to  have  sat  with  Ernest  by  the  fireside. 

31.  My  joy  was  greater  than  I  can  express  when  I  saw  the  tiger 
rise  and  slink  into  the  jungle. 


228  PARTICIPLES 


LXXXVIII.     PARTICIPLES 


346.  In  Lesson  LIV  we  learned  that  the  perfect  tenses  of 
any  verb  are  formed  by  combining  certain  auxiliaries  with  the 
past  participles  of  the  verb;  as,  ^^I  have  heard/'  ^'I  had 
heard/'  '^  I  shall  have  heard.''  We  learned  also  that  the  past 
participle  is  one  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb. 

In  Lesson  LV  we  learned  that  the  passive  voice  of  any  tran- 
sitive verb  is  formed  by  adding  its  past  participle  to  the  con- 
jugation of  the  verb  be;  as,  ^^  Itis  caughtj"  ''It  was  caught," 
'It  will  be  caught." 

In  Lesson  LVI  we  learned  that  the  past  participle  of  a  verb 
may  be  used  like  an  adjective  as  the  subjective  complement 
of  a  verb ;  as,  ''  The  potatoes  seem  done"  "  The  flowers  are 
withered  now/' 

347.  In  Lesson  LVII  we  learned  that  the  present  participle 
of  a  verb  always  ends  in  -ing,  and  that  this  participle  is  used 
in  forming  the  progressive  conjugation,  as,  "I  am  sleeping" 
"I  was  sleeping"  ^'1  shall  be  sleeping." 

We  are  ready  now  to  study  participles  in  all  their  relations. 

348.  Intransitive  verbs  have  four  participles :  — 

Present  Past  Perfect 

coming  come  having  come 

Progressive  having  been  coming 

Transitive  verbs  have  six  participles:  — 

Present  Past  Perfect 

Active  writing  having  written 

Active  Progressive  having  been  writing  * 

Passive    .  being  written  written   having  been  written 

The  active  participles  denote  action  performed;  they  make 
us  think  of  the  doer  of  the  action.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
passive  participles  denote  action  received ;  they  make  us 
think  of  the  receiver  of  the  action. 

*  This  form  is  rarely  used. 


PARTICIPLES  229 

The  present  participle  expresses  action  as  still  in  progress  ; 
the  past  participle  expresses  action  completed  in  past  time  ; 
the  perfect  participle  expresses  past  action  completed  before 
some  particular  past  time. 

349.  The  participle,  like  the  infinitive,  is  a  verbal,  because 
it  is  a  verb  form  without  the  power  to  assert.  Just  as  an 
infinitive  is  oftenest  used  as  a  noun,  so  the  participle  is  often- 
est  used  as  an  adjective;  that  is,  it  is  usually  associated  with 
some  noun.  Indeed,  it  is  by  their  adjective  use  that  we 
are  able  to  distinguish  participles  from  infinitives  in  -ing, 
for  in  form  they  are  almost  exactly  the  same. 

What  nouns  do  the  participles  belong  with  in  the  following 
sentences? 

I  hear  the  sound  of  trickling  water. 
The  lost  child  had  wandered  far. 

The  diamonds  sparkling  in  her  dark  hair  rivaled  the  stars. 
The  chair  made  two  hundred  years  ago  tilted  one  forward  very 
uncomfortably. 

350.  The  participles  used  oftenest  are  the  simplest  of  all, 
the  present  active  participle  and  the  past  passive  participle. 

351.  A  participle,  like  an  infinitive,  may  have  all  the  com- 
plements and  modifiers  that  a  verb  may  have;  as,  ^^  The  man 
turning  the  smitch  is  isiithiulj^^  ^^  Feeling  sleepy  after  lunch j  I 
took  a  nap.'' 

The  participle  and  all  its  accompanying  words  form  to- 
gether a  participial  phrase. 

Summary.  —  A  participle  is  a  verbal  that  is  generally  used 
as  an  adjective. 

Participles  may  be  active  or  passive  or  progressive  in  mean- 
ing. 

Participles  have  three  tenses,  — present,  past,  and  perfect. 


230  PARTICIPLES 

The  present  participle  expresses  continuing  action,  the  past 
participle  completed  action,  and  the  perfect  participle  past 
action  completed  before  a  particular  time. 

Participles  have  the  same  complements  and  modifiers  as 
verbs. 

A  participial  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  consisting  of  a 
participle  and  its  complement  and  modifiers. 

Exercise  1.  —  Form  all  the  participles  of  the  verbs  choose, 
'draw J  drink,  go,  find,  know,  tell,  think,  turn,  shine. 

Exercise  2.  —  Select  all  the  participial  phrases  in  these 
sentences.  Tell  what  noun  or  pronoun  they  belong  with. 
,  Classify  the  participles. 

1.  Two  children  sat  on  the  grass  under  the  lilacs,  making  dande- 
lion chains  and  talking  happily. 

2.  Those  three  tall  poles  now  being  lifted  to  position  will  enable 
us  to  have  a  telephone. 

3.  From  a  little  hill  called  Hutchinson's  Hill  you  could  look  over 
three  and  a  half  miles  of  ground  covered  with  fighting  seals. 

4.  Having  given  away  the  old  candle  mold,  she  was  anxious 
to  get  it  back  again. 

5.  Mrs.  Merrithew,  knowing  well  that  little  folk  are  gener- 
ally troubled  with  a  wonderful  thirst,  had  also  brought  a  cup  and 
a  bottle  of  lemonade. 

6.  The  floors  were  bird's-eye  maple,  and  having  been  lately 
waxed,  they  looked  too  fine  for  my  desecrating  tread. 

7.  The  workmen,  having  been  painting  for  hours  on  the  sunny 
side  of  the  house,  grew  faint  and  dizzy. 

8.  The  boy  took  his  seat,  frowuing  and  blinking  at  the  candle 
light,  while  his  mother,  placing  his  coffee  before  him,  let  her  hand 
rest  on  his  shoulder. 

9.  Having  passed  at  the  turnstile  into  the  campus,  David  stood 
before  the  college. 

10.  In  one  hand  he  carried  a  faded  valise  made  of  Brussels 
carpet  sprinkled  with  pink  roses. 

11.  The  old  peasant  woman,  having  eaten  three  meals  with  the 
servants  and  three  with  the  mistress,  declared  at  evening  that  she 
was  satisfied. 


PARTICIPLES  MODIFYING  NOUNS  231 

12.  If  all  the  money  being  spent  for  ice-cream  sodas  were  put  to 
some  useful  purpose  —  cement  sidewalks,  for  instance, — few  of  us 
would  be  stubbing  our  toes  on  old  board  walks. 

13.  A  snowball  soaked  in  water  and  left  out  to  cool  was  a  pro- 
jectile which  had  been  resorted  to  with  disastrous  results. 

14.  No  flying  or  crawling  creature  escapes  the  sharp  little  eyes 
of  the  birds. 

15.  Its  roots  having  been  cut,  the  top  of  the  tree  suffered. 

16.  The  tourists,  having  watched  the  bears  nose  about  among 
the  tin  cans  in  the  garbage  piles,  went  back  to  the  hotel  to  avoid 
being  devoured  by  mosquitoes. 

17.  Very  soon  their  path  led  them  out  into  a  wide  glade,  fenced 
aU  about  with  the  serried  and  formal  ranks  of  the  yotmg  firs. 

18.  That  log  just  being  sawed  will  produce  eight  hundred  feet 
of  lumber. 

19.  The  whale  is  the  largest  animal  now  living  in  the  world. 

20.  Having  been  told  by  his  master  that  he  too  could  go  to  the 
village,  Shep  bounded  away  down  the  road  like  mad. 

21.  Sleep,  having  descended  upon  him,  spread  a  quiet  mist 
through  his  brain. 

22.  Having  been  tramped  down  by  the  cattle,  the  snow  was 
smooth  like  a  floor. 

Tell  the  use  of  all  the  infinitive  phrases  in  sentences  2,  4, 
10,  13. 

LXXXIX.     PARTICIPLES   MODIFYING    NOUNS 

352.  The  participle  may  be  associated  with  a  noun  in 
several  ways. 

(1)  The  participle  may  modify  a  noun  precisely  like  an 
adjective,  as  when  we  say  boiling  water,  pleading  eyes,  revolv- 
ing turret,  educated  men,  hammered  brass,  plowed  land,  dried 
apples. 

The  participle  in  this  use  can  be  distinguished  from  a  real 
adjective  in  two  ways :  —  (a)  it  comes  from  a  verb,  (6)  it 
cannot  be  compared. 

Apply  these  two  tests  to  the  seven  participles  just  given. 

Some  participles  have  become  real  adjectives,  as  loving ^ 


232  PARTICIPLES  MODIFYING  NOUNS 

learned,  striking  (in  striking  appearance),  annoying,  exciting. 
Any  one  of  these  adjectives  may  be  compared. 

(2)  The  participle  or  participial  phrase  may  take  the  place 
of  an  adjective  clause.  Sometimes  it  is  used  instead  of  a 
restrictive  clause,  thus  pointing  out  a  particular  thing  or 
class  of  things ;  as,  ''  The  men  shoveling  coal  on  the  docks  were 
prostrated  by  the  heat."  Sometimes  the  participial  phrase 
takes  the  place  of  an  unrestrictive  clause,  thus  adding  a  new 
thought  to  the  sentence ;  as,  "  Here  comes  a  turbaned  negress, 
balancing  a  basket  of  lemons  on  her  head.^^ 

In  both  the  sentences  just  given  the  participial  phrase 
comes  after  the  noun  it  modifies,  thus  taking  in  the  sentence 
the  same  position  as  the  appositive  adjective. 

The  restrictive  participial  phrase  is  not  set  off  by  a  comma. 
The  unrestrictive  participial  phrase  is  set  off  by  a  comma. 

(3)  The  participial  phrase  may  take  the  place  of  a  clause 
of  time  or  cause,  and  yet  modify  a  noun,  as  in  the  following 
sentences :  — 

Those  pens,  having  been  given  to  me  by  my  dear  master ,  were  never 
put  to  any  common  uses. 

Having  said  these  words j  Beowulf  plunged  into  the  water  and 
disappeared  among  the  dark  waves. 

In  the  first  sentence,  change  the  phrase  to  a  clause  of  cause. 
What  noun  does  the  phrase  modify? 

In  the  second  sentence,  what  does  the  participial  phrase 
modify?  What  can  you  say  of  its  position?  Change  it  to 
a  clause  of  time. 

Note  that  although  the  participial  phrase  may  take  the 
place  of  a  clause  of  time  or  cause,  it  is  still  an  adjective  ele- 
ment ;  for,  as  shown  in  the  sentences  just  studied,  such  a 
participial  phrase  may  modify  a  noun. 

Summary.  —  The  participle  may  be  used  alone  to  modify 
a  noun  precisely  like  an  adjective. 


PARTICIPLES  MODIFYING  NOUNS  233 

The  participial  phrase  may  modify  a  noun,  taking  the  place 
of  a  clause. 

The  participial  phrase  sometimes  comes  before,  and  some- 
times after,  the  noun  it  modifies. 

A  participial  phrase  is  set  off  by  a  comma  when  it  is  un- 
restrictive,  whether  it  follows  or  precedes  the  word  it  modifies. 

Exercise.  —  Explain  the  use  of  all  the  participial  phrases. 
Classify  the  participles.     Account  for  the  punctuation. 

1.  The  breaking  waves  dashed  high 
On  a  stern  and  rock-bound  coast. 

2.  Being  direct  descendants  of  Adam  and  Eve,  we  had  much  of 
their  inquu-ing  turn  of  mind. 

3.  Worms  are  elongated,  soft-bodied  animals,  differing  greatly 
in  form  and  habits. 

4.  The  books  bound  in  red  morocco  belonged  to  my  mother,  and 
the  "  Ihad  '*  illustrated  by  Flaxman  was  one  of  my  father's  treasures. 

5.  The  Temple  School  was  a  two-story  brick  building,  standing 
in  the  center  of  a  great  square  piece  of  land,  surrounded  by  a  high 
picket  fence. 

6.  Then  [comes]  the  whining  schoolboy  with  his  satchel 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 

Unwillingly  to  school. 

7.  That  tree  toad  squatting  on  the  trellis  and  peering  down  at 
us  reminds  me  of  the  gargoyles  on  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame. 

8.  The  boys  looked  like  a  legion  of  imps,  coming  and  going  in 
the  twilight,  busy  in  raising  some  infernal  edifice. 

9.  At  last,  finding  himself  hungry  and  weary,  and  seeing  that 
there  were  herds  of  wild  asses  in  the  plain  which  he  was  traversing, 
Bustum  thought  that  he  would  catch  one  of  them  for  his  meal, 
and  rest  for  the  night. 

10.  It  is  only  he  who  is  weary  of  life  that  throws  himself  in  the 
way  of  a  roaring  lion. 

11.  Like  most  things  cgnnected  in  their  first  associations  with 
schoolbooks  and  schooltimes,  the  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa  seemed 
much  too  small. 

12.  In  the  morning  it  was  raining,  with  little  prospect  of  fair 
weather,  but  having  expected  nothing  better,  we  set  out  on  foot  for 
the  Causeway. 


234    PARTICIPIAL   PHRASES  IN  THE   PREDICATE 

13.  In  this  tavern  the  visitor  may  derive  good  entertainment 
from  real  Genoese  dishes,  —  sausages,  strong  of  garlic,  sliced  and 
eaten  with  fresh  green  figs;  cocks'  combs  and  sheep  kidneys, 
chopped  up  with  mutton  chops  and  liver;  small  pieces  of  some 
unknown  part  of  a  calf,  twisted  into  small  shreds,  fried,  and  served 
up  in  a  great  dish ;  and  other  curiosities  of  that  kind. 

14.  Having  supposed  the  Giant's  Causeway  to  be  of  great  height, 
I  was  somewhat  disappointed  at  first  for  I  found  the  Loom,  which 
is  the  highest  part  of  it,  to  be  but  fifty  feet  from  the  water. 

XC.     PARTICIPIAL  PHRASES  IN  THE  PREDICATE 

353.  Although  the  participial  phrase  is  in  the  sentence  for 
the  purpose  of  telling  something  about  some  person  or  thing, 
still  it  does  not  always  go  with  the  noun  that  names  that 
person  or  thing.  In  the  sentence,  ^'  The  children  stood  watch- 
ing them  out  of  the  town,'^  the  participial  phrase  watching 
them  out  of  the  town  tells  something  about  the  children,  but  it 
is  not  a  direct  modifier  of  the  noun  children,  for  it  belongs  in 
the  predicate  of  the  sentence.  It  does  not  modify  the  verb 
stood,  for  it  does  not  tell  how  the  standing  was  done.  It 
really  takes  the  place  of  a  second  predicate,  watched  them  out 
of  the  town,  but  participles  are  not  asserting  words,  hence  we 
cannot  call  this  phrase  a  predicate.  The  best  way  to  tell 
about  it  is  this:  The  verb  stood  is  accompanied  by  the  par- 
ticipial phrase  watching  them  out  of  the  town,  which  denotes  an 
action  taking  place  at  the  same  time  as  the  standing. 

Tell  about  the  participial  phrases  in  these  sentences :  — 

Fred  entered  the  house  calling  as  usual  for  his  mother. 
The  Indians  advanced,  shouting  their  war  cries. 
She  gazed  forward,  shading  her  eyes  with  both  hands. 

Note.  —  Sometimes  the  participle  is  used  adverbially  to  modify 
a  verb;  as  in  the  sentence,  "The  children  went  scampering  off  to 
the  woods."  This  sentence  does  not  mean  that  the  children  went 
and  scampered.  They  only  scampered,  and  the  scampering  was 
what  made  them  go.  Since  the  participial  phrase  tells  just  how  the 
children  did  the  going,  it  must  be  a  modifier  of  the  verb  went. 


PARTICIPIAL   PHRASES  IN   THE   PREDICATE     235 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  sentence  just  given  and  the 
following  ?  —  "  The  children  went  singing  to  the  woods.'*  It  is  plain 
that  not  every  verb  can  be  modified  by  a  participle.  Usually  only 
a  verb  meaning  come  or  go  may  be  so  modified. 

354.  In  Lesson  LV  it  was  shown  that  the  past  participle 
is  often  used  as  a  subjective  complement ;  as,  ^^  This  dress  is 
soiled j^^  '^  My  money  is  spent. ^^ 

355.  In  a  few  idiomatic  expressions  the  participle  is  used 
adverbially  to  modify  an  adjective;  as,  freezing  cold,  steam- 
ing hot,  hopping  mad,  dripping  wet.  Here  the  participle 
tells  how  cold,  how  hot,  etc.,  and  thus  denotes  degree. 

356.  Sometimes  the  noun  that  a  participle  modifies  is 
omitted,  and  the  participle  is  said  to  be  used  as  a  noun ;  as, 
"  The  loving  are  the  daring/^  which  means  that  loving  persons 
are  daring  persons.     We  also  speak  of  the  killed  and  wounded. 

Summary.  —  The  participle  or  the  participial  phrase  may 
be  a  part  of  the  predicate  in  three  ways. 

(1)  It  may  be  an  accompaniment  of  the  verb. 

(2)  It  may  be  a  subjective  complement  of  the  verb. 

(3)  It  may  be  a  modifier  of  a  few  verbs,  denoting  the  way 
in  which  an  action  was  performed. 

The  participle  may  be  used  adverbially  to  modify  an  ad- 
jective and  thus  denote  the  degree  of  some  quality. 
The  participle  may  be  used  as  a  noun. 

Exercise.  —  Explain  the  use  of  all  participles  and  parti- 
cipial phrases.     Classify  the  participles. 

1.  The  little  mare  gave  me  all  the  sympathy  I  could  ask,  re- 
peatedly rubbing  her  soft  nose  over  my  face,  and  lapping  up  my 
salt  tears  with  evident  relish. 

2.  Three  fishers  went  sailing  out  into  the  west, 
Out  into  the  west  as  the  sun  went  down. 

3.  The  warriors  of  the  king  were  little  pleased  to  hear  such  talk 
from  his  lips. 


236    PARTICIPIAL   PHRASES  IN  THE   PREDICATE 

4.  After  her  conference  with  the  superintendent,  this  undigni- 
fied young  schoolmistress  went  dancing  and  skipping  home  to 
tell  her  mother  of  her  promotion. 

5.  The  sun  shining  on  the  rippling  water  made  it  so  dazzling 
bright  that  we  were  almost  blinded. 

6.  Little  white  Lily  sat  by  a  stone, 
Drooping  and  waiting  till  the  sun  shone. 

7.  On  my  first  day  in  Tangiers  the  spectacle  was  bewildering, 
and  only  by  concentrating  my  attention  on  detached  groups  could 
I  form  any  distinct  impression  of  it. 

8.  Then  Rustum  made  his  way  to  the  bazaar,  taking  his  camel 
drivers  with  him. 

9.  After  licking  his  lips  and  polishing  his  whiskers,  the  lynx 
went  loping  off  through  the  woods  with  the  limp  body  of  the  mink 
in  his  jaws,  to  eat  it  at  leisure  in  his  lair. 

10.  In  October  the  woods  were  a  blaze  of  color,  —  clear  gold, 
flaming  scarlet,  crimson,  amber,  and  coppery  brown. 

11.  I  watch  him  as  he  skims  along, 
Uttering  his  sweet  and  mournful  cry. 

12.  Society  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  —  the  bores  and  the 
bored. 

13.  O  Captain  !  my  Captain  !  our  fearful  trip  is  done. 

The  ship  has  weathered  every  rock,  the  prize  we  sought  is  won. 

14.  Three  kings  came  riding  from  far  away. 

15.  One  day  as  the  king  sat  drinking  in  one  of  the  chambers  of 
his  palace,  and  boasting  after  his  custom,  a  genius,  disguised  as  a 
minstrel,  desired  to  be  admitted  to  the  royal  presence. 

16.  The  underfed  dogs  snapped  and  growled  in  the  passages,  glaring 
at  the  cold  stars,  and  snuffing  into  the  bitter  wind,  night  after  night. 

17.  Drops  of  nightly  dews  trickle  down  to  the  seeds,  moistening 
the  dryness,  closing  up  the  little  hollows  of  the  ground,  drawing  the 
particles  of  maternal  earth  more  closely. 

18.  The  barley  and  the  rye  are  garnered  and  gone,  the  landscape 
is  bare  and  deserted. 

19.  The  air  was  stinging  cold  and  felt  like  ice  upon  the  boy's 
bare,  hot  throat. 

20.  Her  heart  overflowed  with  sympathy  for  all  the  weary,  the 
beaten,  the  oppressed. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  infijiitive  phrases  in  sentences  3, 4, 7, 
9, 15. 


ABSOLUTE   PARTICIPIAL  PHRASES  237 


XCI.     ABSOLUTE   PARTICIPIAL   PHRASES 

357.  In  the  sentence,  "  When  the  snow  had  left  the  lawns 
bare,  the  crocuses  appeared/'  we  have  an  adverbial  clause. 
What  is  it?  What  does  it  denote?  Such  a  clause  is  fre- 
quently condensed  into  a  group  of  words  like  this,  the  snow 
having  left  the  lawns  hare.  In  this  group  there  are  two  parts, 
— the  noun  element  the  snow,  which  was  subject  of  the  clause, 
and  the  participial  phrase  having  left  the  lawns  hare,  which  is 
made  out  of  the  predicate  of  the  clause.  It  is  clear  then 
that  the  two  parts  of  this  group  of  words  have  the  logical, 
though  not  the  grammatical,  relation  of  subject  and 
predicate. 

Such  a  group  of  words  is  called  an  absolute  phrase. 

358.  The  absolute  phrase  is  generally  spoken  of  by  gram- 
marians as  an  independent  element;  that  is,  it  is  not  a  modi- 
fier of  any  part  of  the  sentence. 

359.  Occasionally,  as  in  the  example  given,  the  absolute 
phrase  is  an  abridgment  of  an  adverbial  clause  of  time. 
Oftener  it  is  used  instead  of  a  clause  of  cause,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  The  drought  having  lasted  so  long,  the  foliage  began 
to  turn  yellow." 

360.  Sometimes  an  absolute  phrase  is  used  instead  of  an 
independent  clause,  thus  changing  a  compound  sentence  to  a 
simple  sentence ;  as,  ^^  The  crew  escaped  from  the  ship  in 
three  boats,  only  two  reaching  Siberia,^ ^  What  clause  would 
you  make  out  of  the  absolute  phrase  here?  By  what  con- 
junction would  you  join  it  to  the  first  independent  proposi- 
tion? 

361.  The  noun  or  the  pronoun  that  is  the  base  word  of  the 
noun  element  in  an  absolute  phrase  is  said  to  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  used  absolutely. 


238  ABSOLUTE  PARTICIPIAL  PHRASES 

Summary.  —  An  absolute  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  used 
independently  and  consisting  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and  a 
participle,  having  to  each  other  the  logical  relation  of  subject 
and  predicate. 

An  absolute  phrase  is  an  abridgment  of  an  adverbial  clause 
or  an  independent  clause. 

Exercise.  —  Select  all  the  absolute  phrases.  Separate  them 
into  their  two  parts.  Expand  them  into  adverbial  clauses 
or  independent  clauses. 

1.  His  feet  were  clad  in  half  slippers  of  red  leather,  the  toes 
being  pointed  and  turned  upward. 

2.  She  had  paused  in  reverie,  her  hands  clasped  behind  her 
head. 

3.  Jack  teUing  his  condition,  the  giant  bade  him  welcome. 

4.  Grandma  and  Norman  were  sitting  on  the  floor  in  front  of 
the  ice  box,  the  child  having  manifested  a  pecuhar  desire  for  cold 
boiled  potato. 

5.  From  a  balcony  above  leaned  the  lovely  Ermengarde,  her 
golden  tresses  crowned  with  a  nightcap  of  rare  and  curious  de- 
sign. 

6.  The  Frey  home  was  made  up  of  cheery  workers,  even  little 
Dorothea  having  her  daily  self-assumed  tasks. 

7.  The  laws  of  that  country  being  very  severe  against  slaves, 
Androcles  was  sentenced  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  a  furious  lion. 

8.  Through  wild  and  desolate  scenes,  by  forests,  rocks,  and 
waterfalls,  we  pass,  the  little  locomotive  always  puffing  and  pushing 
vigorously  behind  us. 

9.  Mowgli  had  been  looking  from  one  to  the  other  of  his  friends, 
his  chest  heaving  and  his  eyes  full  of  tears. 

10.  These  eggs  being  sold,  Jack  and  his  mother  got  plenty  of 
money. 

11.  Everjrwhere,  scattered  about  the  country,  we  have  seen  wind- 
mills, their  great  arms  moving  slowly  around. 

12.  Under  Rebecca* s  delicately  etched  brows  her  eyes  glowed  like 
two  stars;  their  dancing  lights  half  hidden  in  lustrous  darkness. 

13.  The  eagerness  of  Barnum  to  obtain  a  white  elephant  is  easily 
understood,  that  animal  being  considered  by  showmen  the  greatest 
attraction  in  the  country. 


AGREEMENT  OF   PARTICIPLES  239 


XCII.     AGREEMENT    OF   PARTICIPLES.     OTHER 
WORDS    IN   -ING 

362.  A  sentence  containing  a  participial  phrase  should  be 
so  constructed  that  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  what  noun  or  pro- 
noun the  phrase  modifies. 

In  the  sentence,  '^  I  had  a  fine  view  of  your  new  hospital 
coming  in  on  the  train  this  morning/'  the  participial  phrase 
seems  by  its  position  to  modify  the  noun  hospital;  but  it 
really  modifies  the  pronoun  /,  and  hence  should  be  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  If  the  phrase  is  expanded 
into  an  adverbial  clause  of  time,  it  may  remain  where  it  is. 

363.  In  the  sentence,  "  Opening  the  door,  my  lamp  went 
out,''  the  participial  phrase  has  nothing  to  modify. 

This  is  called  a  dangling  or  a  floating  participle.  The  best 
way  to  deal  with  such  a  sentence  is  to  expand  the  participial 
phrase  into  an  adverbial  clause,  —  *^When  I  opened  the 
door." 

Exercise.  —  Point  out  the  error  in  each  of  these  sentences. 
Reconstruct  each  sentence. 

1.  We  never  once  thought  of  the  baby,  rushing  out  of  doors  to 
see  the  fire. 

2.  I  heard  the  whistles  plainly,  sailing  across  the  bay. 

3.  I  met  your  sister  coming  home  from  my  music  lesson. 

4.  Mother  saw  the  flames  first  sitting  on  the  veranda. 

^     5.   Entering  the  hall,  her  foot  slipped  on  the  waxed  floor  and  shQ 
fell. 

6.  Putting  two  and  two  together,  it  is  quite  plain  that  he  wants 
an  appointment. 

7.  Knitting  mittens  and  piecing  quilts,  I  think  Grandmother  is 
very  happy. 

8.  Having  been  recently  painted,  Mr.  Graham  did  not  recog- 
nize his  own  house. 

9.  Grasping  the  rope  and  plunging  into  the  surf,  the  huge  reced- 
ing wave  carried  him  out  almost  to  the  wreck. 


240  WORDS  IN  -ING 

364.  We  have  seen  that  certain  participles  are  in  form 
precisely  like  infinitives  in  -ing,  and  can  be  distinguished  from 
them  only  by  their  use.  The  participle  is  used  like  an  ad- 
jective, and  the  infinitive  in  -ing  is  used  like  a  noun. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  word  running  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

Water  running  down  hill  acquires  great  force. 
Running  races  is  a  small  boy's  pastime. 
Running  water  is  clear. 
I  shall  never  forget  the  running  of  that  race. 

In  the  first  sentence  it  is  clear  that  running  is  a  participle, 
because  the  participial  phrase  running  down  hill  modifies  the 
noun  water  and  is,  therefore,  used  like  an  adjective. 

In  the  second  sentence  it. is  equally  clear  that  running  is 
an  infinitive,  for  the  infinitive  phrase  running  races  is  subject 
of  the  sentence  and  is  therefore  used  like  a  noun. 

In  the  third  sentence  running  is  a  participle,  because  it  is 
derived  from  a  verb  and  cannot  be  compared.     (See  §  352.) 
In  other  respects  it  resembles  a  pure  descriptive  adjective. 
In  the  phrase  ''  an  interesting  book ''  interesting  is  a  pure 
adjective ;  it  can  be  compared. 

In  the  fourth  sentence  running  is  an  infinitive  in  4ng.  It  is 
modified  by  an  article  and  is  used,  like  a  noun,  as  the  object 
of  the  verb. 

In  the  sentences,  "It  is  a  wise  saying,^^  "  Take  my  6fess- 
ing,''  saying  and  blessing  are  pure  nouns  without  verbal  force, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  have  plural  forms. 

Exercise  1.  —  Classify  the  -ing  words  in  the  following 
sentences  as  infinitives,  participles,  adjectives,  or  nouns:  — 

1.  The  half  back  was  cheered  by  the  admiring  crowd. 

2.  The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come. 

3.  I  distinctly  said  that  I  wanted  a  singing  bird. 

4.  Singing  hymns  was  her  favorite  diversion. 

5.  Painting  high  buildings  ig  a  dangerous  occupation. 

6.  The  old  lady  painting  in  the  Louvre  was  an  excellent  copyist. 


WORDS  IN  -ING  241 

7.  Mr.  Morgan  paid  a  large  sum  for  this  small  painting. 

8.  The  child  was  pleased  with  the  painting  book. 

9.  A  setting  hen  looks  very  placid. 

10.  They  should  have  been  arrested  for  setting  fire  to  the  old  house. 

11.  I  will  ask  the  photographer  when  he  can  give  you  a  sitting. 

12.  The  child  sitting  on  the  curbing  said  sweetly,  * '  Hello,  old  lady.'' 

13.  The  smiling  days  are  not  always  the  friendliest. 

14.  "I  am  better,"  said  Agnes,  smiling  brightly. 

15.  A  short  saying  oft  contains  much  wisdom. 

16.  Ever  charming,  ever  new,  when  will  the  landscape  tire  the  view  ? 

17.  Health  is  a  blessing  that  money  cannot  buy. 

18.  Another  duty  the  robin  took  upon  himself,  —  to  assist  me 
in  seeing  that  every  bird  in  the  room  had  his  daily  outing. 

19.  Turning  a  canary  out  into  the  world  is  about  like  turning  a 
two-year  old  baby  out  to  get  its  own  living. 

20.  We  require  from  buildings  as  from  men  two  kinds  of  good- 
ness :  first,  the  doing  their  practical  duty  well ;  then  that  they  be 
graceful  and  pleasing  in  doing  it. 

Exercise  2.  —  Explain  the  use  of  each  verbal  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Analyze  sentences  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  10,  13, 
16,  17,  18,  20,  21. 

1.  The  garret  is  a  fine  place  to  sit  of  an  afternoon  and  hear  the 
rain  pattering  on  the  roof. 

2.  To  be  called  to  the  principal's  office  filled  the  stoutest  heart 
with  alarm. 

3.  The  curfew  toUs  the  knell  of  parting  day. 
The  lowing  herd  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 

4.  The  old  German  carpenter  packed  Mrs.  Howe's  heavy  furni- 
ture in  an  empty  store  beneath  her  apartment,  and  when  she  refused 
to  pay  him  an  exorbitant  sum,,  he  locked  the  door  on  her  and  her 
boxes  and  went  off  to  find  a  policeman. 

5.  I  had  views  of  many  interesting  scenes  in  this  family  of 
crows,  supposed  by  the  wary  parents  to  be  visible  only  to  the  cows 
stolidly  feeding  on  the  hillside. 

6.  The  chickens  seemed  to  be  well  cared  for  by  the  women; 
but  the  men  appeared  to  be  the  laziest  of  mortals. 

7.  Let  us  stand  on  the  long  iron  bridge  that  spans  the  St.  Law- 
rence just  above  Montreal,  the  very  place  to  study  the  river  as  it 
narrows  and  runs  swifter  for  its  smashing  plunge  through  yonder 

KIMBALL*S   ENG.    GRAM. 16 


242  WORDS  IN  -ING 

rapids  to  the  east,  —  the  dreaded  Lachine  Rapids,  whose  snarling 
teeth  flash  white  in  the  sun. 

8.  To  keep  Jim  from  following  the  regiment  or  from  staying 
and  getting  lost  in  search  of  it,  the  wagoner  had  tied  him  to  the  rear 
axle  of  his  wagon  with  a  strong  twine. 

9.  The  engine  mounted  the  curve  faster  and  faster,  roaring 
through  a  tunnel,  growling  over  a  bridge,  and  snarliug  at  a  paling 
alongside,  but  no  glimpse  of  the  runaway  locomotive  could  the 
pursuers  get. 

10.  Daddy  felt,  like  the  midshipman,  sadly  perplexed  when  the 
dog  was  finally  missing,  but  he  could  suggest  no  mode  of  revenge 
which  was  not  too  dangerous  for  them  to  put  in  practice. 

11.  The  thought  of  my  shortcomings  in  this  life  falls  like  a  shadow 
on  my  life  to  come. 

12.  Launching  majestically  from  the  edge  of  the  nest,  the  great 
eagle  had  swooped  down  into  the  cold  shadow,  and  then,  rising  into 
the  light  by  a  splendid  spiral,  he  had  taken  a  survey  of  the  empty, 
glimmering  world. 

13.  Our  terrier  was  never  known  to  spend  a  night  away  from  home. 

14.  It  is  inexplicable  to  me  that  any  bird  should  be  either  so 
unobservant  as  not  to  recognize  a  foreign  egg  at  sight,  or  so  easy- 
tempered  as  not  to  insist  on  straightway  being  rid  of  it. 

15.  It  is  easier  to  do  what  you  please  than  to  do  what  you  ought. 

16.  The  blue- white  moon  of  midwinter,  sharply  glittering  like 
an  icicle,  hung  high  in  a  heaven  clear  as  tempered  steel. 

17.  Sometimes  the  fox  resorts  to  numerous  devices  to  mislead 
and  escape  the  dog  altogether,  —  walking  in  the  bed  of  a  small 
creek,  running  along  a  rail  fence,  or  leaping  into  a  hollow  stump. 

18.  The  elephants  simply  moved  their  legs  mechanically  up  and 
down,  and  swung  their  trunks  to  and  fro;  but  they  were  deter- 
mined not  to  pull  or  exert  the  shghtest  power,  neither  did  they 
move  forward  a  single  inch. 

19.  The  only  way  to  mitigate  the  hard  lot  of  a  canary  is  to  make 
him  so  happy  that  he  will  not  wish  to  be  free. 

20.  The  best  part  of  a  journey  is  getting  home  again. 

21.  Jefferson  sent  Lewis  and  Clark  to  penetrate  the  vast  regions 
west  of  the  Mississippi. 

22.  While  the  old  turkey  perched  upon  a  tree  top  to  keep  an  eye 
on  the  enemy,  the  brood  went  sailing  over  the  trees  toward  home. 

23.  The  ojSicers  ordered  the  crape  to  be  instantly  cut  off  from  the 
dogs'  legs. 


SUMMARY  OF  PARTICIPLES  243 

XCIII.     SUMMARY    OF   PARTICIPLES 

365.       I.  Definition.  —  A  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective. 
11.  Forms. — 

1.  Of  intransitive  verbs. 

Present,  going. 

Past,  gone. 

Perfect,  having  gone,  having  been  going. 

2.  Of  transitive  verbs. 

Present,  seeing,  being  seen. 
Past,  seen. 

Perfect,  having  seen,  having  been  seeing,  having 
been  seen. 
III.  Uses. 

1.  To  form  the  perfect  tenses,  the  passive  voice, 

and  the  progressive  conjugation. 

I  have  trusted  you. 
You  were  trusted  by  me. 
I  am  trusting  you. 

2.  As  an  adjective  modifier  of  a  noun  or  a  pro- 

noun, 
(a)   Restrictive, 

Barking  dogs  seldom  bite. 
The  picture  painted  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
was  stolen. 

(6)   Unrestrictive. 

(1)  Used  in  place  of  an  adjective  clause. 

The  silver  moon,  shining  in  the  rosy 
eastern  sky,  must  have  looked  upon 
the  setting  sun. 

(2)  Used  in  place  of  a  clause  of  time  or 

cause. 
Having  built  a  magnificent  church,  we 
had  to  have  a  magnificent  organ. 


244  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES 

3.  As  subjective  complement  of  a  verb. 

Christ  is  risen. 
Everybody  is  gone. 

4.  As  an  accompaniment  of  a  verb. 

Then  the  blind  girl  came  nearer,  reaching  out 
her  hands  toward  my  face. 

5.  As  part  of  an  absolute  phrase. 

The  roast  turkey  having  received  due  attention, 
the  boys  were  ready  for  mince  pie. 

IV.   Modifiers  and  Complements. 

Participles  have  the  same  modifiers  and  comple- 
ments as  verbs. 

Having  earned  the  money,  I  spent  it. 

Growing  tired,  we  walked  slower. 

Calling  me  a  coward,  he  went  on. 

Turning  sharply  to  the  right,  he  struck  the  tree. 

V.  Agreement. 

1.  The  construction  of  a  sentence  should  leave 

no  doubt  as  to  what  word  a  participial 
phrase  modifies. 

2.  Dangling  participles  should  be  avoided. 
Make  two  good  sentences  to  illustrate  each  use  of  the  parti- 
ciple. 

XCIV.     ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES 

366.  A  participial  phrase  is  analyzed  very  much  like  an 
infinitive  phrase.  First  the  participle  should  be  given  as  the 
base,  then  its  complement  and  modifiers. 

Model.  —  Behind  each  islet  of  tall  reeds  is  a  fishing  boat  held 
fast  by  two  poles  stuck  in  the  bottom  of  the  river. 

This  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  a 
fishing  boat  held  fast  by  two  poles  stuck  in  the  bottom  of  the  river. 
The  predicate  is  is  behind  each  islet  of  tall  reeds. 


ANALYSIS   OF  SENTENCES  245 

The  base  word  of  the  subject  is  boat  It  is  modified  by  the 
infinitive  fishing,  the  article  a,  and  the  participial  phrase  held 
fast  by  two  poles  stuck  in  the  bottom  of  the  river. 

The  base  word  of  this  phrase  is  the  participle  held.  It  is 
modified  by  the  adverb  fast  and  by  the  prepositional  phrase 
by  two  poles  stuck  in  the  bottom  of  the  river.  The  base  word  of 
the  object  of  the  preposition  by  is  the  noun  poles.  It  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adjective  two  and  the  participial  phrase  stuck  in 
the  bottom  of  the  river.  The  base  word  of  this  phrase  is  the 
participle  stuck.  It  is  modified  by  the  prepositional  phrase 
in  the  bottom  of  the  river,  etc. 

367.  A  sentence  containing  an  absolute  phrase  should  be 
analyzed  as  follows  :  — 

Model.  —  Amy  having  gone  to  Vermont,  the  lady  was  lonely. 

This  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence  containing  the  ab- 
solute phrase  Amy  having  gone  to  Vermont,  which  is  used  in- 
stead of  the  adverbial  clause  of  cause,  since  Amy  had  gone 
to  Vermont. 

The  subject  is  the  lady.     The  predicate  is  was  lonely,  etc. 

The  absolute  phrase  consists  of  the  noun  Amy  and  the 
participial  phrase  having  gone  to  Vermont,  which  have  the 
logical  relation  of  subject  and  predicate.  The  base  of  the 
participial  phrase  is  the  participle  having  gone,  etc. 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  In  one  store  I  would  find  a  catbird  moping  on  a  high  shelf  or 
.  in  a  dark  back  room ;    in  another  a  bluebird  scared  half  to  death, 

and  dumb  in  the  midst  of  squawking  parrots  and  singing  canaries. 

2.  In  that  first  battle,  Jim  ran  barking  after  the  very  first  shell 
that  came  screaming  over  our  heads. 

3.  The  island  is  supplied  with  the  best  water  imaginable,  small 
streams  leaping  down  from  the  sides  of  the  hills  and  running  through 
every  valley. 

4.  The  biting  cold  wind  that  shrunk  our  faces  and  pinched  our 


246  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES 

noses  blue  only  brought  a  wild-rose  bloom  to  mother's  delicate 
cheeks. 

5.  The  doings  of  the  people  thus  suddenly  become  his  neighbors, 
Bobby  studied  with  all  a  bird's  curiosity. 

6.  Coming  out  into  the  road  on  my  way  home  again,  I  fell  in 
with  an  old  friend. 

7.  The  soldiers  were  miserably  clad,  and  asked  whether  we  had 
shoes  to  sell. 

8.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  left-half's  agony  as  he  picked 
himself  up  and  went  limping  back  to  his  place. 

9.  At  daylight,  directly  ahead  of  us  was  the  island  of  Juan 
Fernandez,  rising  like  a  deep  blue  cloud  out  of  the  sea. 

10.  Long  ears  twinkling,  round  eyes  softly  shining,  the  rabbits 
leaped  Hghtly  hither  and  thither,  pausing  every  now  and  then  to 
touch  each  other  with  their  sensitive  noses,  or  to  pound  on  the 
snow  with  their  strong  hind  legs  in  mock  challenge. 

11.  In  long,  graceful  leaps,  barely  touching  the  fence,  the  fox 
went  careering  up  the  hill  as  fleet  as  the  wind. 

12.  Joel's  long  legs  began  to  ache,  and  seemed  stiffening  at  the 
thighs  and  knees. 

13.  After  their  supper  of  milk  and  oatmeal  porridge,  the  children 
sat  down,  waiting  and  watching,  and  fancying  they  heard  sounds  in 
the  hills. 

14.  Hearing  loud  cries  of  distress  coming  from  the  lawn,  the 
gardener  rushed  across  and  found  the  crow  lying  on  his  back,  his 
claw  tightly  gripping  the  end  of  one  of  the  wings  of  a  large  hawk. 

15.  We  soon  found  the  vireo's  nest,  suspended  within  the  angle 
of  two  horizontal  twigs,  and  trimmed  outwardly  with  some  kind  of 
white  silky  substance. 

16.  He  lay  like  a  warrior  taking  his  rest. 

17.  For  four  miles  the  pilot  must  race  along  a  squirming,  twist- 
ing, plunging  thread  of  water,  that  leaps  ahead  like  a  greyhound, 
and  changes  its  crookedness  somewhat  from  day  to  day  with  wind 
and  tide. 

18.  For  centuries  the  trees  had  developed  strength  to  resist  the 
winds  when  they  were  clad  in  all  their  leaves,  or  to  carry  the  load 
of  those  leaves  weighted  with  raindrops,  or  to  bear  the  winter  snows  ; 
but  they  had  no  strength  that  would  enable  them  to  be  coated  thick 
with  ice  and  then  wrenched  by  angry  blasts. 

19.  The  servants  having  gone  to  their  cabins,  the  great  house 
was  filled  with  the  quiet  of  a  Sunday  afternoon. 


ANTICIPATIVE  SUBJECT  247 

XCV.     ANTICIPATIVE    SUBJECT 

368.  We  have  learned  that  the  pronoun  it  may  be  used  as 
an  anticipative  subject  to  throw  the  real  subject  after  the 
predicate.  This  real  subject  may  be  a  noun  clause  or  an  in- 
finitive phrase. 

It  will  never  be  known  whether  the  lady  came  out  of  that  door 
or  the  tiger. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  fox  cannot  be  tamed. 

369.  We  must  not  conclude  that  the  word  it  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence  is  always  an  anticipative  subject.  Some- 
times it  is  the  real  subject,  that  is,  it  is  a  neuter  personal 
pronoun  having  for  its  antecedent  some  term  perfectly  under- 
stood by  both  speaker  and  listener ;  as,  ^^  Have  you  read  ^  The 
Call  of  the  Wild '  ?      /^  is  the  story  of  a  dog  that  reverted.'^ 

370.  Sometimes  it  is  used  for  subject  with  no  special 
word  for  antecedent;  as  when  we  say,  ^^  It  was  blowing  great 
guns.^^     (See  §  252.) 

371.  In  the  familiar  expression,  ^'  It  is  time  to  get  up/'  the 
antecedent  of  it  is  the  word  now  or  the  term  the  present  mo- 
ment. 

372.  It  is  not  the  only  word  used  as  anticipative  subject. 
Another  word  is  there;  as  in  the  sentence,  ^^  There  is  snow  on 
the  top  of  Pike's  Peak.''  If  we  ask  the  question.  What  is  on 
the  top  of  Pikers  Peak?  the  sensible  answer  is  not  there^  but 
snow,  hence  snow  is  the  subject.  The  word  there  does  not 
denote  place,  hence  it  is  not  an  adverb.  It  is  used  merely 
to  fill  a  gap  in  a  declarative  sentence  in  which  the  subject  has 
been  placed  after  the  verb,  for  if  the  gap  were  not  filled  and 
the  sentence  began  with  a  verb,  it  would  seem  to  be  inter- 
rogative. When  so  used  the  word  there  is  called  an  expletive, 
which  means  a  word  used  to  fill  up  a  gap. 


248  ANTICIPATIVE  SUBJECT 

373.  Of  course  there  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  is  not 
always  an  expletive.  Sometimes  it  is  an  adverb  denoting 
place;  as,  "  There  will  I  build  me  a  nest." 

Note.  —  When  there  is  an  adverb  we  pronounce  it  distinetlvy 
but  when  it  is  an  expletive  used  as  anticipative  subject,  we  slur  it. 

Summary.  —  The  word  it  is  often  used  as  an  anticipative 
subject  so  that  the  real  subject  may  come  after  the  verb. 
The  word  there  may  be  an  anticipative  subject.  It  is  then 
called  an  expletive. 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences.  If  there  is 
an  anticipative  subject,  state  that  fact  before  giving  the  real 
subject ;  thus,  —  In  the  sentence,  "  Once  upon  a  time  there 
were  four  little  rabbits,"  the  anticipative  subject  is  the  ex- 
pletive there;  the  real  subject  is  four  little  rabbits.  The  predi- 
cate is  were  once  upon  a  time. 

1.  There  would  be  several  insuperable  difficulties  in  adopting 
the  moon  as  a  residence. 

2.  Every  object  on  the  moon  would  be  only  one  sixth  as  heavy 
as  the  same  object  on  the  earth.  There  a  box  containing  a  pound 
of  chocolate  bonbons  would  weigh  only  two  or  three  ounces. 

3.  It  is  a  httle  curious  that  the  effect  of  a  short  allowance  of 
food  does  not  show  itself  in  hunger. 

4.  There  never  was  such  a  hailstorm  in  Wisconsin. 

5.  It  is  just  the  right  time  of  the  moon  for  planting  sweet  peas. 

6.  There  were  dances,  theatricals,  and  sleighrides  that  winter. 

7.  It  would  amuse  me  very  much  to  sing  while  I  am  hunting. 

8.  A  cannon  that  breaks  loose  from  its  fastenings  on  a  ship  is 
suddenly  transformed  into  a  supernatural  beast.  It  is  a  monster 
developed  from  a  machine ;  it  has  the  weight  of  an  elephant,  the 
agility  of  a  mouse,  the  obstinacy  of  the  ox ;  it  takes  one  by  surprise, 
like  the  surge  of  the  sea ;  it  flashes  like  lightning ;  it  is  deaf  as  the 
tomb ;  it  weighs  ten  thousand  pounds,  and  it  bounds  like  a  child's 
ball. 

9.  That  day  there  came  our  first  great  snowstorm. 


ELLIPTICAL  SENTENCES  249 

10.  There  lay  the  beautiful  piece  of  embroidery  that  mother  had 
put  away  so  carefully  and  forgotten  so  completely. 

11.  There* s  a  special  providence  that  watches  over  idiots,  drunken 
men,  and  boys. 

12.  There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin. 

13.  It  made  the  children  laugh  and  play. 
To  see  a  lamb  at  school. 

14.  In  the  reign  of  King  Arthur,  and  in  the  county  of  Cornwall, 
near  to  the  Land's  End  in  England,  there  lived  a  worthy  farmer, 
who  had  an  only  son,  named  Jack. 

15.  There  the  two  old  dogs  sat  and  talked  of  the  wonderful 
tenacity  of  rheumatism  that  has  once  settled  in  a  dog's  shoulder. 

16.  There  was  one  passenger  in  the  coach,  —  a  small,  dark-haired 
person  in  a  glossy  buff  calico  dress. 

17.  Professor  Boyesen  describes  what  he  calls  the  saeter,  the 
spring  migration  of  the  dairy  and  dairymaids.  It  is  the  great  event 
of  the  year  in  all  the  rural  districts. 

18.  There  were  three  Catherines,  two  Annes,  and  a  Jane. 

19.  It  is  said  in  Ceylon  that  the  cocoanut,  like  the  magpie  and 
the  robin,  will  flourish  only  within  sound  of  the  human  voice. 

20.  There  is  always  a  sad  element  in  the  departure  of  a  steamer. 

XCVI.     ELLIPTICAL    SENTENCES 

37ffc.  We  have  noted  several  constructions  in  which  there 
is  an  ellipsis,  or  omission  of  some  word  or  words  necessary  to 
the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentence. 

(1)  The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence,  the  pronoun  you, 
thoUj  or  ye  is  usually  omitted;  as,  *'  (You)  Honor  the  flag." 

(2)  A  noun  is  often  omitted  after  a  possessive  modifier ;  as, 
''  Let  us  go  over  to  Baker^s  (house)  this  evening.'^ 

(3)  An  auxiliary  verb  is  often  omitted ;  as,  "  Somebody 
has  entered  the  hall  and  (has)  taken  my  umbrella." 

(4)  The  predicate  is  often  omitted  in  a  clause  of  compar- 
ison ;  as,  '^  I  am  not  so  tired  as  you  (are  or  are  tired)  J'  *'  He 
has  no  better  right  than  I  (have  or  have  right)  J  ^ 

(5)  The  relative  pronoun  that  is  often  omitted  in  an  adjec- 
tive clause ;  as,  *^  The  ring  (that)  you  gave  me  is  too  small." 


250  ELLIPTICAL  SENTENCES 

(6)  The  subordinate  conjunction  that  is  often  omitted  in 
a  noun  clause ;  as,  ''  You  said  {that)  I  might  take  your  skates/' 

375.  The  eUiptical  sentence  is  very  common,  especially 
in  conversation,  where  we  do  not  have  to  depend  entirely 
upon  words  to  convey  our  meaning,  as  we  have  the  help  of 
emphasis,  tone  of  voice,  and  gesture.  It  follows  that  in  oral 
language  we  leave  out  many  words  that  can  easily  be  supplied 
by  our  listeners. 

(1)  In  answering  questions,  we  seldom  make  complete 
statements,  as,  — 

What  is  your  name  ?     {My  name  is)  Donald. 
Whose  boy  are  you?     (/  am)  Mr.  Hill's  {hoy). 
Where  do  you  live  ?      (/  live)  On  Jackson  Street. 

(2)  We  often  omit  a  word  that  has  already  been  expressed 
in  the  sentence ;  as,  ^^  Our  first  maid  was  an  Irish  girl ;  our 
second  {maid  was)  a  Norwegian  {girl).'^ 

(3)  In  sentences  beginning  with  no  wonder  or  no  matter  we 
omit  the  main  verb  and  the  anticipative  subject  it. 

"No  wonder  he  died,"  means  '*It  is  no  wonder  that  he  died." 
"No  matter  what  I  said,"  means  "It  is  no  matter  what  I  said." 

(4)  Two  very  common  questions  are  What  of  it?  and  What 
if  I  do?  We  may  expand  the  first  question  thus,  "What 
{will  come)  of  it?^'  and  the  second  thus,  "What  {difference 
will  it  make)  if  I  do? '' 

(5)  In  adverbial  clauses  we  find  many  cases  of  ellipsis,  but 
the  words  omitted  can  readily  be  supplied ;  as,  — 

I  lived  on  the  south  side  when  (/  was)  a  child. 

I  cut  my  finger  while  (/  was)  paring  an  apple. 

She  sings  as  if  {she  were  singing)  by  note. 

I  will  be  there  if  {it  is)  possible. 

Though  {we  were)  tired  and  hungry  we  plodded  on. 

I  will  go  {though  it)  rain  or  {though  it)  shine. 


ELLIPTICAL  SENTENCES  251 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  supplying  the 
words  omitted  wherever  there  is  an  ellipsis. 

1.  Wisdom  is  better  than  rubies. 

2.  A  song  to  the  oak,  the  brave  old  oak  ! 

3.  The  sun  shall  not  smite  thee  by  day  nor  the  moon  by  night. 

4.  She  will  close  the  house  and  go  to  her  son's. 

5.  Caesar  had  his  Brutus  ;  Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell. 

6.  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive. 

7.  And  then  to  breakfast  with  what  appetite  you  have. 

8.  To-day  he  puts  forth  the  tender  leaves  of  hope  ;  to-morrow 
blossoms. 

9.  Love's  wing  moults  when  caged  and  captured. 

10.  He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty,  and  he 
that  ruleth  his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a  city. 

11.  Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  we  said. 

12.  All  the  world's  a  stage  and  all  the  men  and  women  merely 
players. 

13.  Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make, 
Nor  iron  bars  a  cage. 

14.  Though  mild,  Calvin  was  also  intolerant. 

15.  Happy  the  man  whose  wish  and  care 
A  few  paternal  acres  bound. 

16.  Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes. 

17.  True  hope  is  swift  and  flies  with  swallow's  wings, 
Kings  it  makes  gods  and  meaner  creatures,  kings. 

18.  My  true  love  hath  my  heart,  and  I  have  his. 

19.  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime. 

20.  What  if  the  river  is  too  deep  for  the  cattle  to  ford  ? 

21.  If  all  the  year  were  playing  holidays 

To  sport  would  be  as  tedious  as  to  work. 

22.  My  kingdom  for  a  horse  ! 

23.  No  matter  what  the  daisies  say, 

I  know  I'll  be  married  some  fine  day. 

24.  Blessings  on  thee,  little  man  ! 

25.  Six  white  eggs  on  a  bed  of  hay. 
Flecked  with  purple,  a  pretty  sight. 

26.  "  Lady  Moon,  Lady  Moon,  where  are  you  roving  ?  '5 
**  Over  the  sea." 

27.  The  wind  has  a  language,  I  would  I  could  learn. 


252  REVIEW  OF  ANALYSIS 

XCVII.     REVIEW   OF  ANALYSIS 

Exercise.  —  Analyze  the  following  sentences.  These  sen- 
tences contain  examples  of  the  various  constructions  that 
have  been  presented  in  this  book.  If  there  is  any  doubt  as 
to  what  part  of  speech  a  certain  word  is,  the  dictionary  will 
usually  enable  you  to  decide.  Where  an  ellipsis  occurs,  the 
word  or  words  omitted  should  be  supplied. 

1.  How  the  black  cat  had  captured  the  alert  and  restless  squirrel 
so  quickly  was  a  great  mystery  to  me. 

2.  If  a  woman  puts  on  airs  with  her  equals,  she  probably  has 
something  about  herself  or  her  family  that  she  is  ashamed  of. 

3.  In  writing  these  memoirs  I  shall  yield  to  the  inclination  so 
natural  to  old  men,  of  talking  of  themselves  and  their  own  actions. 

4.  When  ye  come  where  I  have  stepped, 
Ye  will  wonder  why  ye  wept. 

5.  I  sought  out  one  of  these  few,  Fred  Ouillette,  pilot  and  son 
of  a  pilot,  an  idol  in  the  company's  eyes,  a  hero  to  the  boys  of 
Montreal,  a  figure  to  be  stared  at  always  by  anxious  passengers. 

6.  Must  we  conclude  that  the  dignity  of  a  bird  depends  upon 
the  length  of  his  tail? 

7.  During  these  gales,  the  top  of  the  tableland  is  enveloped  in 
thick  clouds,  which  the  people  of  the  Cape  call  the  Devil's  Table 
Cloth. 

8.  The  sand-hills  were  gashed  with  numberless  ravines;  and 
as  the  sky  had  suddenly  darkened,  and  a  cold  gusty  wind  arisen, 
the  strange  shrubs  and  the  dreary  hills  looked  doubly  wild  and  deso- 
late. 

9.  Floweret  and  hope  may  die, 
But  love  with  us  shall  stay. 

10.  There  are  three  beautiful  dandelions  out  on  the  terrace. 

11.  I  hope  to  see  my  Pilot  face  to  face 
When  I  have  crossed  the  bar. 

12.  Gray  Brother  did  not  come  upon  the  night  when  I  sent  him 
the  word. 

13.  The  beasts  cannot  use  me  more  cruelly  than  I  have  been 
used  by  my  fellow  creatures. 

14.  If  I  stroked  the  cat  in  my  pet  monkey's  presence,  he  would 
get  into  a  paroxysm  of  rage  and  make  great  efforts  to  bite  me. 


REVIEW  OF  ANALYSIS  253 

15.  The  spangled  heavens,  a  shining  frame, 
Their  great  Original  proclaim. 

16.  He  was  a  strange  figure,  this  tattered,  long-haired  man, 
with  the  spear  and  wallet,  and  his  boots  cut  down  into  sandals. 

17.  Gordon  waited  long  for  an  opportunity  to  sing  in  the  choir 
at  old  St.  George's. 

18.  When  shall  you  leave  Yarmouth  ?    On  the  fifteenth,  if  possible. 

19.  The  captain,  whose  ideas  of  hard  riding  were  all  derived 
from  trans-Atlantic  sources,  expressed  the  utmost  amazement  at 
the  feats  of  Sorel,  who  went  leaping  ravines,  and  dashing  at  full 
speed  up  and  down  the  sides  of  precipitous  hiUs,  lashing  his  horse 
with  the  recklessness  of  a  Rocky  Mountain  rider. 

20.  The  Great  American  Desert  is  a  land  where  no  man  per- 
manently abides ;  for  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  there  is  no  food 
either  for  the  hunter  or  his  steed. 

21.  One  constant  element  in  luck 

Is  genuine,  soHd,  old  Teutonic  pluck. 

22.  Did  you  ever  think  why  a  dog's  nose  is  always  wet  ? 

23.  One  of  the  most  difficult  things  is  to  get  any  wild  animal  to 
allow  himself  to  be  touched  with  the  human  hand. 

24.  Old  Trinity's  steeple  probably  sways  eighteen  inches  when- 
ever an  elevated  train  passes. 

25.  Do  steeple  climbers  always  work  in  pairs  ? 

26.  The  chipmunk  had  made  a  well-defined  path  from  his  door 
out  through  the  weeds  and  dry  leaves  into  the  territory  where  hia 
feeding  ground  lay. 

27.  No  wonder  Eve  ate  the  forbidden  fruit. 

28.  In  Bermuda  the  banana  is  as  omnipresent  as  the  onion. 

29.  We  called  the  mice  Jack,  Jill,  and  Jenny,  and  they  seemed 
to  know  their  names. 

30.  Shooting  the  Lachine  Rapids  is  like  taming  a  particularly 
fierce  lion. 

31.  Turk  slept  at  night  outside  his  master's  door,  and  no  sentry 
could  be  more  alert  upon  his  watch  than  this  faithful  mastiff,  who 
had  apparently  only  one  ambition,  —  to  protect  and  to  accompany 
his  owner. 

32.  We  fancied  we  could  hear  the  huge  bodies  of  the  whales 
burrowing  through  the  water. 

33.  At  length,  finding  my  life  very  solitary,  I  accepted  the  claw 
and  heart  of  a  rich  and  respectable  green  parrot,  who  offered  me  a 
good  home  and  the  devotion  of  a  lifetime. 


254  REVIEW  OF  ANALYSIS 

34.  Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 

35.  Presently  the  doe  stepped  away,  and  left  her  little  one  lying 
on  a  spotted  heap  of  dead  leaves  and  moss. 

36.  While  traveling  along  the  Rhine,  we  observed  that  when  the 
German  has  nothing  else  to  do,  he  eats  and  drinks. 

37.  The  Spaniards  changed  the  whole  character  and  habits  of 
the  Indians  when  they  brought  the  horse  among  them. 

38.  The  fires  in  the  Australian  bush  are  often  the  work  of  the 
natives,  to  frighten  away  the  white  men ;  and  sometimes  the  work 
of  the  shepherds,  to  make  the  grass  sprout  afresh. 

39.  Near  the  Pyramids,  more  wondrous  and  more  awful  than  all 
else  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  there  sits  the  lonely  Sphinx. 

40.  The  sexton  had  lived  in  Stratford  for  eighty  years,  and 
seemed  still  to  consider  himseK  a  vigorous  man,  with  the  trivial 
exception  that  he  had  nearly  lost  the  use  of  his  legs. 

41.  What  if  this  were  my  last  day  at  school  ? 

42.  It  was  something  to  have  seen  the  dust  of  Shakespeare. 

43.  A  queen  bee  will  lay  two  hundred  eggs  in  a  few  hours,  and  in 
the  year  she  will  generally  have  laid  twenty  or  thirty  thousand. 

44.  The  ground  was  carpeted  with  softest  moss,  into  which  the 
boy's  feet  sunk  so  deep  that  they  were  almost  covered ;  and  all 
over  the  moss  were  sprinkled  little  star-shaped  pink  flowers. 

45.  The  wolf  asked  little  Red  Riding  Hood  whither  she  was  going. 

46.  O  happy  harbor  of  God's  saints  ! 

O  sweet  and  pleasant  soil ! 

In  thee  no  sorrow  can  be  found, 

Nor  grief,  nor  care,  nor  toil. 

47.  She  fell  back  upon  the  floor  as  if  by  the  stroke  of  an  unseen 
hand. 

48.  Whether  she  was  attended  by  a  physician  from  Canton  or 
from  Milton,  I  was  unable  to  say ;  but  neither  the  gig  with  the  large 
allopathic  sorrel  horse,  nor  the  gig  with  the  homoeopathic  white 
mare  was  ever  seen  hitched  at  the  gate  during  the  day. 

49.  No  sooner  did  I  open  their  door  than  out  the  little  starlings 
would  all  fly,  and  seat  themselves  on  my  head  and  shoulders. 

50.  Neither  eye  nor  ear  revealed  him  anything. 

51.  Small  leisure  have  the  poor  for  grief. 

52.  By  a  flight  of  winding  stairs  we  reached  a  covered  balcony, 
over  which  a  tropical  vine  wanders  at  will. 

53.  Dora  heard  Marjorie  singing,  laughing,  chatting,  as  she  flashed 
here  and  there,  helping  and  hindering  in  about  equal  proportions. 


REVIEW  OF  ANALYSIS  255 

54.  No  matter  what  honors  your  ancestors  attained,  make  your 
own  name  honorable. 

55.  As  I  trod  the  sounding  pavement,  there  was  something  intense 
and  thrilling  in  the  idea  that  the  remains  of  Shakespeare  were 
moldering  beneath  my  feet. 

56.  The  lark,  springing  up  from  the  reeking  bosom  of  the 
meadow,  towered  away  into  the  bright  fleecy  cloud,  pouring  forth 
torrents  of  melody. 

57.  I  now  found  myself  among  noble  avenues  of  oaks  and  elms, 
whose  vast  size  bespoke  the  growth  of  centuries. 

58.  The  air  within  the  tunnel  is  somewhat  damp,  but  fresh  and 
agreeably  cool,  and  one  can  scarcely  realize  in  walking  along  the  light 
passage,  that  a  river  is  rolling  above  his  head. 

59.  No  frog  egg  may  hope  to  develop  into  a  turtle,  or  a  bird,  or 
anything  but  a  frog. 

60.  I  heard  my  own  mountain  goats  bleating  aloft. 

61.  Everybody  knows  that  the  porcupine  is  ridiculously  fas- 
tidious in  his  choice  of  food. 

62.  The  daisy,  by  the  shadow  that  it  casts, 
Protects  the  lingering  dewdrop  from  the  sun. 

63.  If  I  choose  to  work  eleven  hours  a  day,  what  of  it  ? 

64.  Far  below  lay  the  earth,  brown,  dry,  and  desolate,  from 
drouth. 

65.  There  was  no  sleep  that  long  night  for  the  little  duck  mother 
Quackalina. 

66.  One  evening,  after  the  ice  of  a  sleet  storm  had  clogged  their 
wings,  the  pigeons  settled  on  one  of  the  highest  buildings  they 
could  find,  and  sat  and  shivered  through  the  long  night. 

67.  The  taking  down  of  a  steeple  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
feet  high,  that  rises  on  a  closely  built  city  street,  is  not  a  simple 
proceeding. 

68.  The  legend  of  Felix  is  ended,  the  toiling  of  Felix  is  done ; 
The  master  has  paid  him  his  wages,  the  goal  of  his  journey 

is  won. 

69.  There  we  were  shown 'the  chair  on  which  the  English  mon- 
archs  have  been  crowned  for  several  hundred  years. 

70.  Under  the  seat  is  the  stone  brought  from  the  Abbey  of  Scone, 
whereon  the  kings  of  Scotland  were  crowned. 

71.  Sleeping  or  waking,  my  thoughts  are  all  of  Ireland  and  of  you. 

72.  Fortunately  for  us,  our  two  lean,  wiry  little  horses  did  not 
object  to  being  used  as  aquatic  animals. 


256  REVIEW  OF  ANALYSIS 

73.  Many  Russian  villages  possess  a  public  bath  of  the  most 
primitive  construction,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  country  the  peasants 
take  their  vapor  bath  in  the  household  oven  in  which  the  bread  is 
baked ! 

74.  This  aptly  illustrates  a  common  Russian  proverb,  which  says 
that  what  is  health  to  the  Russian  is  death  to  the  German. 

75.  Scarfs,  shawls,  stuffs  for  dresses,  morning  gowns,  and  vests, 
handkerchiefs,  sashes,  purses,  and  tobacco  bags  are  heaped  in  rich 
profusion. 

76.  When  a  man  of  fourscore,  he  continued  his  weekly  visits  to 
the  schools. 

77.  His  master  having  been  honorably  discharged  before  the  close 
of  the  war,  Jim  was  left  with  the  regiment  in  care  of  Wiggins,  the 
wagoner. 

78.  No  other  pigeon  is  so  bold  and  fearless,  so  full  of  bulldog 
tenacity,  so  full  of  royal  courage,  as  the  homer. 

79.  The  French  carried  their  imitation  of  Indians  so  far  that 
they  often  disguised  themselves  to  resemble  their  allies,  with  paint, 
feathers,  and  all. 

80.  It  was  sometimes  impossible  to  teU  in  an  attacking  party 
which  were  French  and  which  were  Indians. 

81.  The  sea  was  dotted  everywhere  with  the  heads  of  seals 
hurrying  to  land  and  begin  their  share  of  fighting. 

82.  Old  Marley  was  as  dead  as  a  door-nail. 

83.  If  eyes  were  made  for  seeing. 

Then  beauty  is  its  own  excuse  for  being. 

84.  Out  on  the  lawn  there  arose  such  a  clatter 

I  sprang  from  my  bed  to  see  what  was  the  matter. 

85.  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods. 
There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  sho^re. 

86.  How  I  wish  that  when  the  Angel  comes  for  me,  I  might  reach 
out  and  feel  your  hand  I 


GENERAL  REVIEW 

Exercise  1 

(1)  The  family  of  the  Lambs  had  long  been  among  the 
most  thriving  and  popular  in  the  neighborhood;  the  Miss 
Lambs  were  the  belles  of  Little  Britain,  and  everybody  was 
pleased  when  old  Lamb  had  made  money  enough  to  shut 
up  shop,  and  put  his  name  on  a  brass  plate  on  his  door. 
(2)  In  an  evil  hour,  however,  one  of  the  Miss  Lambs  had 
the  honor  of  being  a  lady  in  attendance  on  the  Lady  May- 
oress, at  her  great  annual  ball,  on  which  occasion  she  wore 
three  towering  ostrich  feathers  on  her  head.  (3)  The  family 
never  got  over  it;  they  were  immediately  smitten  with  a 
passion  for  high  life ;  set  up  a  one-horse  carriage,  put  a  bit 
of  gold  lace  round  the  errand-boy's  hat,  and  have  been  the 
talk  and  detestation  of  the  whole  neighborhood  ever  since. 
(4)  They  could  no  longer  be  induced  to  play  at  Pope-Joan 
or  blindman's  buff;  they  could  endure  no  dances  but  qua- 
drilles, which  nobody  had  ever  heard  of  in  Little  Britain ;  and 
they  took  to  reading  novels,  talking  bad  French,  and  playing 
upon  the  piano.  (5)  Their  brother,  too,  who  had  been  ar- 
ticled to  an  attorney,  set  up  for  a  dandy  and  a  critic,  char- 
acters hitherto  unknown  in  these  parts ;  and  he  confounded 
the  worthy  folks  exceedingly  by  talking  about  Kean,  the 
opera,  and  the  '^Edinburgh  Review.'^ 

—  Washington  Irving,  Sketch  Book. 


L  Consult  the  dictionary  for  the  meaning  of  all  words 
in  this  paragraph  that  you  do  not  understand. 

2.  Account  for  the  capitalization  and  punctuation.  Why 
is  the  term  Edinburgh  Review  inclosed  in  quotation  marks  ? 

Kimball's  eng.  gram. — 17    257 


258  GENERAL  REVIEW 

3.  What  kind  of  noun  is  family  in  sentence  (1)  ?  Use  it 
in  a  sentence  so  as  to  reveal  its  number  and  its  gender.  What 
is  its  number  in  sentence  (3)  ?     How  do  you  account  for  it  ? 

4.  What  two  plural  forms  has  the  term  Miss  Lamb? 
What  is  the  plural  of  Lady  Mayoress?  What  does  the  dic- 
tionary say  about  the  plural  form  folks  f  What  is  the  num- 
ber of  everybody  in  sentence  (1)  ?  What  is  the  plural  of 
attorney?   of  dandy? 

5.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  long,  enough,  sentence 
(1) ;  however,  one,  which,  sentence  (2) ;  ever,  since,  sentence 
(3) ;  no,  longer,  no,  hut,  sentence  (4) ;  too,  up,  hitherto,  sen- 
tence (5).  Which  of  these  words  can  be  used  as  other  parts 
of  speech  ?     Illustrate  in  sentences. 

6.  Are  thriving  in  sentence  (1)  and  towering  in  sentence  (2) 
participles  or  adjectives?  How  do  you  decide?  Is  pleased 
in  sentence  (1)  a  complement  of  was  or  a  part  of  a  passive 
verb  was  pleased?  How  do  you  decide?  How  is  smitten 
used  in  sentence  (3)  ?  Find  two  passive  verbs,  and  prove 
that  they  are  passive. 

7.  Supply  the  ellipsis  before  and  after  popular  in  sentence 
(1) ;  before  put  in  sentence  (1). 

8.  Tell  the  use  of  each  of  the  following  verbals  :  being  (2)  ; 
reading,  talking,  playing  (4) ;  talking  (5).  Tell  how  each  of 
these  verbals  is  modified  or  completed. 

9.  Select  each  prepositional  phrase  and  tell  what  it  modifies. 

10.  Select  all  the  infinitives  with  to  and  tell  the  grammatical 
use  of  each. 

11.  Parse  the  relative  pronouns  in  sentences  (4)  and  (5). 
Are  the  clauses  that  they  introduce  restrictive  or  unrestric- 
tive  ? 

12.  Tell  the  use  and  case  of  each  of  the  following  nouns: 
belles  (1) ;  talk,  detestation  (3) ;  characters  (5). 

13.  Tell  the  principal  parts  of  each  of  these  verbs:  put  (1)  ; 
had,  wore  (2) ;  got,  set  (3) ;  took  (4). 


GENERAL  REVIEW  259 


Exercise  2 


(1)  Ahem  !  Dry  work,  this  speechifying,  especially  to  an 
unpracticed  orator.  (2)  I  never  conceived  till  now  what 
toil  the  temperance  lecturers  undergo  for  my  sake;  here- 
after they  shall  have  the  business  to  themselves.  (3)  Do, 
some  kind  Christian,  pump  a  stroke  or  two,  just  to  wet  my 
whistle.  (4)  Thank  you,  sir !  (5)  My  dear  hearers,  when 
the  world  shall  have  been  regenerated  by  my  instrumen- 
tality, you  will  collect  your  useless  vats  and  liquor  casks  into 
one  great  pile  and  make  a  bonfire  in  honor  of  the  town  pump. 
(6)  And  when  I  shall  have  decayed  like  my  predecessors, 
then,  if  you  revere  my  memory,  let  a  marble  fountain,  richly 
sculptured,  take  my  place  upon  this  spot.  (7)  Such  monu- 
ments should  be  erected  everywhere  and  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  the  distinguished  champions  of  my  cause. 

(8)  One  o'clock  !  (9)  Nay,  then,  if  the  dinner  bell  begins 
to  speak,  I  may  as  well  hold  my  peace.  (10)  Here  comes  a 
pretty  young  girl  of  my  acquaintance  with  a  large  stone 
pitcher  for  me  to  fill.  (11)  May  she  draw  a  husband  while 
drawing  her  water,  as  Rachel  did  of  old  !  (12)  Hold  out  your 
vessel,  my  dear  !  (13)  There  it  is,  full  to  the  brim ;  so  now 
run  home,  peeping  at  your  sweet  image  in  the  pitcher  as  you 
go,  and  forget  not,  in  a  glass  of  my  own  liquor,  to  drink 
'^Success  to  the  town  pump.'' 

—  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  Twice  Told  Tales, 


1.  Consult  the  dictionary  for  the  meaning  of  words  in  these 
paragraphs  that  you  do  not  understand. 

2.  Classify  each  sentence  both  as  to  purpose  and  structure. 

3.  What  part  of  speech  is  ahem?     What  feeling  does  it 
express  in  sentence  (1)  ? 

4.  Supply  the  ellipsis  in  sentence  (1).     What  part  of  speech 
is  speechifying  f     What  is  its  grammatical  use  ? 


260  GENERAL  REVIEW 

5.  What  does  the  adverb  especially  in  sentence  (1)  modify  ? 

6.  Account  for  the  use  of  shall  and  will  in  these  paragraphs. 

7.  Select  all  the  dependent  clauses.  Tell  the  class  and  use 
of  each,  and  the  introductory  word. 

8.  Select  all  the  terms  of  address.  What  is  the  base  word 
of  each  ? 

9.  What  is  the  use  of  now  sentence  (2)  ?  old  (11)  ?  dinner 
(9)? 

10.  Parse  each  predicate  verb  in  sentences  (3),  (5),  (6),  (7). 

11.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  themselves,  sentence 
(2) ;  stroke  J  two  (3) ;  there,  full,  peeping,  glass,  own  (13). 

12.  Tell  the  use  of  all  infinitive  phrases  in  sentences  (3), 
(6),  (9),  (10),  (13). 

Exercise  3 

(1)  Once  upon  a  time  there  came  to  this  earth  a  visitor 
from  a  neighboring  planet.  And  he  was  met  at  the  place  of 
his  descent  by  a  great  philosopher,  who  was  to  show  him 
everything. 

(2)  First  of  all  they  came  through  a  wood,  and  the  stranger 
looked  upon  the  trees.     '^  Whom  have  we  here  ?''  said  he. 

(3)  '^ These  are  only  vegetables,"  said  the  philosopher. 
"They  are  alive,  but  not  at  all  interesting." 

(4)  '^I  don^t  know  about  that,"  said  the  stranger.  '^They 
seem  to  have  very  good  manners.     Do  they  never  speak  ?  " 

(5)  "They  lack  the  gift,"  said  the  philosopher. 

(6)  "Yet  I  think  I  hear  them  sing,"  said  the  other. 

(7)  "That  is  only  the  wind  among  the  leaves,"  said  the 
philosopher.  "I  will  explain  to  you  the  theory  of  winds; 
it  is  very  interesting." 

(8)  "Well,"  said  the  stranger,  "I  wish  I  knew  what 
they  are  thinking." 

(9)  "They  cannot  think,"  said  the  philosopher. 

(10)  "I  don't  know  about  that,"  returned  the  stranger; 


GENERAL  REVIEW  261 

and  then  laying  his  hand  upon  a  trunk :  ^'  I  like  these  people/' 
said  he. 

(11)  ^'They  are  not  people  at  all/'  said  the  philosopher. 
^^Come  along/' 

(12)  Next  they  came  through  a  meadow  where  there  were 
cows. 

(13)  ''These  are  very  dirty  people/'  said  the  stranger. 

(14)  ''They  are  not  people  at  all/'  said  the  philosopher ; 
and  he  explained  what  a  cow  is  in  scientific  words  which  I 
have  forgotten. 

(15)  "That  is  all  one  to  me/'  said  the  stranger.  "But 
why  do  they  never  look  up  ?" 

(16)  "Because  they  are  graminivorous/'  said  the  philos- 
opher; "and  to  live  upon  grass,  which  is  not  highly  nutri- 
tious, requires  so  close  an  attention  to  business  that  they 
have  no  time  to  think,  or  speak,  or  look  at  the  scenery,  or 
keep  themselves  clean." 

(17)  "Well,"  said  the  stranger,  "that  is  one  way  to  live, 
no  doubt.     But  I  prefer  the  people  with  the  green  heads." 

(18)  Next  they  came  into  a  city,  and  the  streets  were 
full  of  men  and  women. 

(19)  "These  are  very  odd  people,"  said  the  stranger. 

(20)  "They  are  the  people  of  the  greatest  nation  in  the 
world,"  said  the  philosopher. 

(21)  "Are  they  indeed?"  said  the  stranger.  "They 
scarcely  look  so." 

—  R.  L.  Stevenson,  Fables. 


1.  Rewrite  this  selection,  changing  the  direct  to  indirect 
discourse  and  noting  the  changes  made  in  verbs,  pronouns, 
and  other  words. 

2.  Fill  out  the  elliptical  sentences,  and  tell  the  grammati- 
cal use  of  each  of  the  words  that  you  supply. 

3.  Comment  on  the  use  of  and,  (l),but  (15),  and  but  (17). 

4.  Explain  how  each  of  the  following  verbs  and  verbals  is 


262  GENERAL  REVIEW 

completed  and  'modified :  was,  to  show^  paragraph  (1) ;  have 
(2) ;  are,  and  are  (3) ;  seem  (4) ;  lack  (5) ;  think,  hear,  said 
(6)  ;  wish,  knew,  are  thinking  (8) ;  laying  (10) ;  explained,  ^  is, 
have  forgotten  (14);  is  (15);  keep  (16). 

5.  Find  the  subject  of  came  in  the  first  sentence,  and  explain 
the  use  of  there.  Prove  that  was  met  in  paragraph  (1)  is  a 
true  passive  verb. 

6.  Tell  the  grammatical  use  of  each  infinitive  in  para- 
graphs (16)  and  (17). 

7.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  once,  paragraph  (1) ; 
first  (2);  highly,  so  (16);  well  (17);  next  (18);  very  (19); 
indeed,  scarcely,  so  (21), 

8.  Parse  all  the  adjective  pronouns,  interrogative  pro- 
nouns, and  relative  pronouns. 

9.  Find  all  the  prepositional  phrases,  and  tell  what  each' 
phrase  modifies.  Tell  the  object  of  each  preposition,  and  if 
there  is  anything  peculiar  about  any  object,  comment  upon 
the  peculiarity. 

10.  Select  all  the  dependent  clauses.  Tell  the  kind  and  use 
of  each  clause,  and  its  introductory  word.  Classify  the  ad- 
jective clauses  as  restrictive  or  unrestrictive,  and  tell  what 
the  adverbial  clauses  denote. 

If  a  word  is  used  in  a  peculiar  or  uncommon  way,  consult 
the  dictionary  for  information  regarding  it.  , 

Exercise  4 

(1)  There  troop  the  three  most  roguish  boys  that  ever  made 
parents  scold  or  laugh.  (2)  They  have  nothing  to  do  but 
to  set  each  other  on  to  mischief.  (3)  They  pull  off  buds 
from  the  unblossomed  rose  bushes;  they  pick  cucumbers 
by  the  half  bushel  that  were  to  have  been  let  alone;  they 
break  down  rare  shrubbery  to  get  whips,  and  instead  get 
whippings;  they  kill  the  guinea-pigs;  chase  the  chickens; 
break  up  hens'  nests ;  get  into  the  carriages  and  wagons  only 


GENERAL  REVIEW  263 

to  tumble  out,  and  set  all  the  nurses  a-running ;  they  study 
every  means  of  getting  under  the  horses'  feet,  and,  as  the  more 
dangerous  act,  they  are  fond  of  tickling  their  hind  legs,  and 
pulling  at  their  tails ;  they  fill  the  already  fed  horses  with 
extra  oats,  causing  the  hostler  to  fear  for  his  charges'  health, 
since  they  refuse  oats  at  the  next  regular  feeding ;  they  paddle 
in  all  the  mud  on  the  premises;  sit  down  in  the  street  and 
fill  their  pockets  with  dirt;  they  wet  their  clothes  in  the 
brook,  tear  them  in  the  woods,  lose  their  caps  a  dozen  times 
a  day,  and  go  bare-headed  in  the  blazing  sun;  they  cut  up ' 
every  imaginable  prank  with  their  long-suffering  nurses  when 
meals  are  served,  or  when  bedtime  comes,  or  when  morning 
brings  the  washing  and  dressing.  (4)  They  are  little,  nimble, 
compact  skinfuls  of  ingenious,  fertile,  endless,  untiring  mis- 
chief. (5)  They  stub  their  toes,  or  cut  their  fingers,  or  get 
stung,  or  eat  some  poisonous  berry,  seed,  or  root,  or  make  us 
think  that  they  have,  which  is  just  as  bad ;  they  fall  down 
stairs,  or  eat  green  fruit  till  they  are  as  tight  as  a  drum; 
and  yet  there  is  no  peace  to  us  without  them,  as  there  cer- 
tainly is  none  with  them.  Mischievous  darlings!  Joyful 
plagues  !     Loving,  rollicking,  laughing  rogues  ! 

—  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Star  Papers, 


1.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  each  predicate  verb  in  this 
selection;  its  tense.  Read  the  selection  with  the  predicate 
verbs  in  the  past  tense. 

2.  Explain  how  the  following  verbs  are  completed  and 
modified:  madey  sentence  (1);  have  (2);  pull,  were,  lose,  go, 
cut  (3) ;  are  (4) ;  get,  make  (5) . 

3.  Select  all  the  adjectives  and  tell  what  they  modify. 
Classify  them  as  limiting  or  descriptive.  Compare  them, 
if  possible.  If  any  of  them  do  not  admit  of  comparison, 
tell  why. 

4.  Tell  the  use  of  there,  sentence  (1)  and  there  (5). 


264  GENERAL  REVIEW 

5.  Tell  the  use  and  case  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  : 
boys,  sentence  1 ;  legs  (3) ;  hostler  (3) ;  times  (3) ;  day  (3) ; 
drum  (5) ;  darlings  (5) . 

6.  Find  three  nouns  in  the  possessive  case,  and  tell  what 
each  of  them  modifies.     Decline  each  of  these  nouns. 

7.  Select  all  the  infinitives  with  to  and  tell  the  use  of 
each. 

8.  Select  and  classify  all  the  words  in  -ing. 

9.  Account  for  the  punctuation  of  this  selection. 

10.  Select  all  the  dependent  clauses.  Tell  the  kind  and 
use  of  each,  and  the  introductory  word. 

11.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  use  of  on  (2) ;  off,  alone, 
down  J  up,  already  (3) ;  just,  down,  certainly  (5) . 

12.  Select  all  the  coordinate  conjunctions  in  sentences  (3) 
and  (5)  and  tell  what  each  conjunction  joins. 


INDEX 


Absolute  phrases,  237. 
Absolute  use  of  noun,  237. 
Abstract  nouns,  14. 
Active  voice,  40. 
Address,  term  of,  39,  40. 
Adjective  clauses,  171. 

restrictive,  193. 

unrestrictive,  194. 
Adjective  elements,  29. 
Adjective  phrases,  31. 
Adjective  pronouns,  121. 

declension  of,  122. 
Adjectives,  appositive,  88. 

classified,  110. 

comparison  of,  116,  117. 

defined,  25. 

errors  in  use  of,  118,  119. 

misused  for  adverbs,  70,  71. 

modifying  pronouns,  26. 

objective  complement,  94. 

parsing  of,  120. 

review  of,  120. 

subjective  complement,  69. 
Adverbial  clauses,  of  cause,  183. 

of  comparison,  188,  189. 

of  concession,  186. 

of  condition,  186. 

of  manner,  181. 

of  place,  181. 

of  purpose,  184. 

of  result,  184. 

of  time,  180,  181. 

office  of,  171. 
Adverbial  nouns,  91. 
Adverbial  noun  phrases,  91. 

modifying    adjectives    or    ad- 
verbs, 92. 


Adverbial  noun  phrases,  modify- 
ing verbs,  91. 

what  they  denote,  91. 
Adverbial  phrases,  31. 
Adverbs,  comparison  of,  170. 

conjunctive,  172. 

defined,  28. 

formation  of,  31. 

interrogative,  170. 

introducing  noun  clauses,  204, 
205. 

meaning  of,  28. 

misused  for  adjectives,  70,  71. 

modifying  adjectives,  29. 

modifying  adverbs,  29. 

modifying  sentences,  175. 

modifying  verbs,  28. 

parsing  of,  174. 

simple,  170. 

summary  of,  173. 
After,  178. 

Agreement,     of    participle    and 
noun,  239. 

of  subject  and  verb,  165,  166. 
Among,  37. 
Analysis,  models  for,  34,  48,  191, 

225,  244. 
Antecedent,  of  personal  pronoun, 
98. 

of  relative  pronoun,  197. 
Anticipative   subject,   201,   212, 

247. 
Appositive,  adjective,  88. 

case  of,  87. 

in  possessive  case,  86. 

infinitive,  215. 

noun,  85,  86. 


265 


266 


INDEX 


Ap positive,  noun  clause,  201. 

position  of,  86. 

punctuation  of,  86,  87. 
Articles,  definite  and   indefinite, 
113. 

uses  of,  114. 
As,  relative  pronoun,  197. 
At,  37. 
Auxiliary  verbs,  124. 

can,  could,  etc.,  154-156. 

shall  and  will,  151,  152. 

Before,  178, 
Beside,  38. 
Besides,  38. 
Between,  37. 

But,  conjunction  and  preposition, 
46. 

relative  pronoun,  197. 

uses  of,  178. 
By,  38. 

Can  and  could,  155,  156. 
Capitalization,  of   proper  adjec- 
tives, 111. 

of  proper  nouns,  13,  14. 
Case,  83-95,  100,  108,  196. 
Cause,  clauses  of,  183. 
Clauses,  adjective,  171,   193-197. 

adverbial,  171,  180-191. 

defined,  48. 

dependent,  52,  53. 

independent,  48. 

noun,  200,  201. 

review  of,  206. 
Collective  nouns,  166. 
Common  gender,  78. 
Common  nouns,  13,  14. 
Comparative  degree,  116. 
Comparison,  clauses  of,  188,  189. 

of  adjectives,  116. 

of  adverbs,  170. 

how  denoted,  116,  117. 

irregular,  117. 
Complement,  defined,  61. 


Complement,  direct  object,  61. 

double  object,  216. 

objective,  94,  145. 

subjective,  67,  68. 
Complex  sentences,  53. 
Compound    personal    pronouns, 
106. 

uses  of,  106. 
Compound  predicate,  19,  20. 
Compound  sentences,  50. 
Compound  subject,  20. 
Concession,  clauses  of,  186. 
Condition,  clauses  of,  186. 
Conjugation,  active  voice,   128- 
130,  132,  134. 

defined,  127. 

emphatic,  149. 

imperative  mode,  134. 

indicative  mode,  128-130. 

interrogative,  129. 

passive  voice,  140-142. 

progressive,  148. 

subjunctive  mode,  132. 
Conjunctions,  46. 

coordinate,  174. 

correlative,  175. 

in  compound  sentences,  50. 

subordinate,  176,  177. 
Conjunctive  adverbs,  172. 

in  noun  clauses,  204. 
Contractions,' 130. 
Coor4inate  conjunctions,  174. 
Correlative  conjunctions,  175. 

Dangling  participles,  239. 
Declarative  sentences,  9,  10. 
Declension,  of  nouns,  84. 

of  personal  pronouns,  98. 

of  relative  pronouns,  196. 
Defective  verbs,  154-157.  , 
Demonstrative  adjectives^,  113«- 
Dependent  clauses,  52.  .    r   . 

Descriptive  adjectives,  110*  111, 
Direct    and    indirect    discourse, 
162-165. 


INDEX 


267 


Direct  and  indirect   quotations, 

162-165. 
Do^  as  principal  verb,  157. 
Double  object,  of  preposition  for, 
220. 
of  verb,  216-218. 
Double  possessive,  81,  104. 

Each  other,  122. 

Elliptical  sentences,  249,  250. 

Else,  as  limiting  adjective,  113. 

uses  of,  178. 
Emphatic  conjugation,  149,    150. 
Enough,  113. 

Errors,  in  adjectives,  70,  71,  118, 
119. 

in  adverbs,  70,  71. 

in  infinitives,  221,  222. 

in  interrogative  pronouns,  109, 
110. 

in  participles,  239. 

in     personal     pronouns,     101, 
103. 

in  verbs,  130,  137-142. 
Exclamatory  nouns,  40. 
Exclamatory  sentences,  44,  45. 

Feminine  gender,  78. 
Floating  participle,  239. 
For,  179. 

Gender,  77,  78. 

how  denoted,  78. 
Gerund,  211. 
Going,  in  verb  phrase,  156. 

Have,  as  principal  verb,  157. 
Hence,  179. 

Idiomatic  expressions,   104,   201, 

220,  235,  247. 
Imperative  mode,  134.     . 

conjugation  of,  134. 
Imperative  sentences,  41. 

subject  omitted,  42. 


Impersonal  verbs,  157. 

In,  37,  38. 

Independent  elements,  39,  40. 

Indicative  mode,  127. 

Indirect  discourse,  162-165, 

Indirect  object,  89,  90. 

becoming    subject    of    passive 
verb,  141. 

position  of,  90. 
Infinitive  phrases,  211. 
Infinitives,  defined,  209. 

errors  in  use    of,  221,  222. 

in  apposition,  215. 

in  -ing,  210. 

modified  by  possessive,  211. 

modifier     of     adjective,     220, 
221. 

modifier  of  noun,  215. 

modifier  of  verb,  218. 

object  of  preposition,  220. 

object  of  verb,  213. 

part   of    double    object,    216- 
218. 

subjective  complement,  213. 

summary  of,  224,  225. 

used  independently,  221. 

with  to,  209,  210. 
Interjections,  43. 
Interrogative  adjectives,  113. 
Interrogative  adverbs,  170. 
Interrogative  conjugation,  129. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  108. 

errors  in  use  of,  109,  110. 

in  noun  clause,  204. 

uses  of,  108. 
Interrogative  sentences,  23,  24. 

order  of,  24. 
Into,  38. 
Intransitive  verbs,  of  action,  64. 

of  being,  64,  66,  67. 
Irregular  verbs,  defined,  135,  136. 

errors  in  use  of,  137-140. 

principal  parts  of,  137. 
It,  as  anticipative    subject,  201, 
212,  247. 


268 


INDEX 


Lay  and  lie,  137. 
Like,  181. 

Limiting:    adjectives, 
114. 


110,    113, 


Manner,  clauses  of,  181. 
Masculine  gender,  77. 
May  and  might,  155,  156. 
Mode,  defined,  127. 

imperative,  134. 

indicative,  127. 

subjunctive,  131,  132. 
Modifier,  26. 
Must,  155,  156. 

Natural  order,  22. 
Neuter  gender,  78. 
Nominative  case,  83,  84,  100. 
Noun  clauses,  200. 

introductory  word  of,  203,  204. 

uses  of,  200,  201. 
Nouns,  abstract,  14. 

adverbial,  91,  92. 

as  adjectives,  27. 

as  interjections,  43. 

case  of,  83,  84. 

collective,  166. 

common,  13,  14. 

compound,  81. 

declension  of,  84. 

defined,  11,  12. 

direct  object,  61. 

gender  of,  77,  78. 

in  apposition,  85-87. 

in  exclamation,  40. 

in  -ing,  240. 

indirect  object,  89. 

number  of,  74-76. 

object  of  preposition,  35. 

objective  complement,  94. 

parsing  of,  96. 

possessive,  79-82. 

proper,  13,  14. 

term  of  address,  39,  40. 

used  absolutely,  237. 


Number,  defined,  74. 

singular  and  pliu*al,  74,  75. 
Nimieral  adjectives,  113. 

0,43. 

Object,  double,  216. 

indirect,  89,  90,  141. 

of  preposition,  35,  36. 

of  verb,  61. 

retained,  146. 
Objective  complement,  94. 

becoming    subjective    comple- 
ment of  passive  verb,  145. 
OS.  38. 

One,  declined,  122. 
One  another,  122. 
Only,  179. 

Other,  declined,  122. 
Own,  with  possessives,  100. 

Parsing,  of  adjectives,  120. 

of  adverbs,  174. 

of  nouns,  96. 

of  prepositions,  179. 

of  pronouns,  100,  208. 

of  verbs,  150,  168. 
Participial  phrases,  229. 
Participles,  agreement  of,  239. 

dangling,  or  floating,  239. 

defined,  228,  229. 

differing  from  adjectives,  231. 

errors  in  use  of,  239. 

forms  of,  228. 

summary  of,  243,  244. 

uses  of,  140,  144,  145,  148,  228, 
229,  231,  235,  237. 
Parts  of  speech,  summary  of,  57. 
Passive  voice,  140-142. 
Past  participle,  135,  228. 

as  subjective  complement,  144, 
145. 

in  passive  conjugation,  140. 
Person,  of  nouns,  98. 

of  pronouns,  98. 

of  verbs,  127. 


INDEX 


269 


Personal  pronouns,  98. 

compound,  106. 

declension  of,  98 

errors  in  use  of,  101-103. 

uses  of,  100,  103-105. 
Phrases,  31,  33. 

absolute,  237. 

adjective,  31. 

adverbial,  31. 

as  subjective  complement,  69. 

defined,  33. 

denoting  possession,  81. 

in  a  series,  32. 

infinitive,  211. 

participial,  229. 

position  of,  32. 

prepositional,  35,  36. 
Place,  clauses  of,  181. 
Plurals,  foreign,  75. 

formation  of,  74,  75. 
.  compound  nouns,  75. 

letters  and  figures,  75. 

titles,  75. 

regular  and  irregular,  74. 

same  as  singular,  74. 
Positive  degree,  116. 
Possessive  case,  83. 

of  compound  nouns,  81. 
Possessive  nouns,  80,  83. 

form  of,  80,  81. 

in  double  possessives,  81. 

what  they  denote,  81. 
Possessive  pronouns,  103. 

how  used,  104. 

in  double  possessives,  104. 
Predicate,  compound,  19,  20. 

defined,  9,  10. 

simple,  16. 

transposed,  22. 
Prepositions,  34,  35. 

correct  use  of,  37-39. 

parsing  of,  179. 
Present  participle,  in  progressive 

conjugation,  148,  228. 
Principal  parts,  135. 


Principal  parts,  of  irregular  verbs, 

137. 
Progressive  conjugation,  148. 
Pronouns,  adjective,  121. 

compound  personal,  106. 

defined,  18. 

in  clauses  of  comparison,  190, 
191. 

indefinite,  204. 

interrogative,  108. 

parsing  of,  100,  208. 

personal,  98,  100,  103. 
Pronouns,  relative,  196,  197. 

review  of,  207. 
Proper  adjectives.  111. 
Proper  nouns,  13,  14.  J 

Punctuation,  of  a  series,  20,  25,    \/ 
26,  32. 

of  appositives,  86-88.  x^ 

of  compound  sentences,  50. 

of  compound  subject  and  predi- 
cate, 20.  ^- 

of  declarative  sentences,  10. 

of  exclamatory  sentences,  44. 

of  interrogative  sentences,  24. 

of  phrases,  32.  „ 
Purpose,  clauses  of,  184. 

Raise  and  rise^  138. 
Reflexive  use  of  pronouns,  106. 
Regular  verbs,  135,  136. 
Relative  pronouns,  196,  197. 

what,  204. 
Result,  clauses  of,  184. 
Retained  object,  146. 
Review,  general,  257-264. 

of  adjectives,  120. 

of  adverbs,  173. 

of  analysis,  252. 

of  clauses,  206. 

of  infinitives,  224,  225. 

of  nouns,  96,  97. 

of  participles,  243. 

of  parts  of  speech,  57. 

of  prepositions,  179. 


270 


INDEX 


Review,  general,  of  pronouns,  207. 
of  sentences,  55. 
of  verbs,  72,  168. 

Sentences,  complex,  53. 

compound,  50. 

declarative,  9,  10. 

defined,  9,  10. 

elliptical,  249,  250, 

exclamatory,  44,  45. 

imperative,  41. 

interrogative,  23,  24. 

review  of,  55. 

simple,  48. 
Sequence  of  tenses,  125,  163. 
Series,  of  adjectives,  25. 

of  phrases,  32. 

of  predicates,  20. 
Set  and  sit,  138. 
Shall  and  will,  151. 

in  indirect  discourse,  163. 

in  interrogative  sentences,  152. 

rules  for  use  of,  152. 
Should  and  would,  160-162. 

in  subjunctive  mode,  155. 
Simple  adverbs,  170. 
Simple  predicate,  16. 
Simple  sentences,  48. 
Simple  subject,  11. 
Since,  179. 
Singular  number,  74. 
So,  179. 
Subject,  compound,  20. 

defined,  9,  10. 

how  found,  16. 

simple,  11. 

transposed,  22. 
Subjective  complement,  67,  68. 

adjective,  69. 

infinitive,  213. 

noun,  67,  69. 

participle,  144,  145. 

prepositional  phrase,  69. 
Subjunctive  mode,  131. 

conjugation  of,  132. 


Subjunctive  mode,  tenses  of,  132. 
Subordinate    conjunctions,     176, 

177. 
Summary,  of  adverbs,  173. 

of  case  relations,  97. 

of  infinitives,  224,  225. 

of  participles,  243,  244. 
Superlative  degree,  116, 

Tense,  123. 

errors  in,  125,  126. 

in  noun  clauses,  201. 

primary,  124. 

secondary,  124. 

sequence  of,  125,  163. 
Term  of  address,  39. 
The,  an  adverb,  170. 
There,  247,  248. 
Till,  179. 

Time,  clauses  of,  180,  181. 
To,  omitted  in  infinitives,  217, 
To,  use  of,  37. 
Transitive  verbs,  60,  61. 

followed  by  indirect  object,  90. 

followed  by  objective  comple- 
ment, 94. 

what  they  denote,  62. 
Transposed  order,  22. 

Until,  179. 

Used,  in  verb  phrases,  156. 

Verb  phrases,  155<  156. 
Verbals,  210,  211. 
Verbs,  defective,  154-157. 

defined,  16. 

errors  in  use  of,  130,  137-142. 

intransitive,  64,  66,  67. 

mode  of,  127,  131,  134. 

parsing  of,  150,  168. 

principal  parts  of,  135,  137. 

regular  and  irregular,  135  ,  136. 

review  of,  72,  168. 

tense  of,  123-126. 

transitive,  60,  61. 

used  as  interjections,  43. 


INDEX 


271 


Verbs,  used  transitively  or  intran- 
sitively, 64,  66. 
voice  of,  140-142. 
Voice,  active  and  passive,  140. 
conjugation    of    passive,   140- 

142. 
test  for  passive,  145. 

With,  38. 

Words  in  -ing,  240. 


Words  used,  as  adjective  or  ad- 
verb, 59. 
as  adverb  or  preposition,  60. 
as  noun  or  adjective,  58. 
as  noun  or  verb,  58. 
as  preposition,  conjunction,  or 
adverb,  179. 
Would,  as  principal  verb,  155. 

Yet,  179. 


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